Bioefficiency
Bioefficacy (Control/lab/ft/gh)
Work on steinernematids started in the sixties in India. Testing mortality in lab and limited field trials, life cycle and compatibility of DD136 with insecticides and fertilizers were attempted. High mortality of Rice cutworm, Pseudoletia separata, leaf folder, C irphis compta with DD 136 strain, S. carpocapsae in lab, green house and field ;ragi pink borer, Sesamia inferens,rice leaf folder,Cnaphalocrosis medinalis, rice borer,Chilo suppressalis,stem borer,Scirpophaga (= Tryporyza) incertulas paddy gall midge, Orseolia oryzae and maize stem borer, Chilo partellus were obtained. They were found compatible with fertilizers and insecticides and tolerant to osmotic stress.In Tobacco, DD-136 caused 66% mortality of cutworm, Spodoptera litura and S. feltiae to the pre-pupa, pupa, and adult. In groundnut, H. bacteriophora strains were most effective on red hairy caterpillar, Amsacta albistriga in field. Cutworms, Agrotis ipsilon and A. segetum were found parasitized in Potato and DD-136 strain caused 100% mortality of chaffer grubs, Anomala sp.; brinjal fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis, mustard sawfly, Athalia proxima castor semi looper, Paralellia algira, adult grasshoppers (Orthacris simulans), larvae of beetle, Draterius sp., citrus butterfly, Papilio aristolochiae and Ergolis merione
Factors affecting bioefficacy:Thermal adaptation of EPN-niche breadth for infection, establishment, and reproduction has been found to vary. The thermal niche breadths for infection, establishment, and reproduction of 12 species and strains of EPN collected from diverse climatic regions was determined (Grewal et al., 1994). S. riobravis infected G. mellonella larvae at the widest temperature range (10-390C), whereas S. feltiae at the narrowest (8-30°C). Thermal niche breadth for establishment within hosts was the widest for S. glaseri (10-37°C) and the narrowest for S. feltiae (8-30°C). Thermal niche breadth for reproduction was widest for S. glaseri, (12-32°C) and the narrowest for S. carpocapsae (20-30°C), S. scapterisci (20-32°C), S. riobrave (20-35°C), and Steinernema sp. (20-32°C) were more adapted to warm temperature reproduction and S. feltiae to cooler temperatures (10-25°C). Although heterorhabditids are endemic to warmer climates, the upper thermal limits and temperature optima for reproduction of H. bacteriophora and H. megidis were cooler than that of some of the steinernematids. Thermal niche breadths did not differ between conspecific populations isolated from different localities, but were different for different species isolated from the same locality. It was concluded that the EPN have well-defined thermal niches which may be unaffected by their locality.
Survival of IJ in soil is influenced by pH and oxygen concentration. Populations of S.carpocapsae and S. glaseri gradually declined during 16 weeks of observation as the soil pH decreased from 8 to 4. Survival of both species dropped sharply after 1 week at pH 10. Survival was similar at pH 4, 6 and 8 during the first 4 weeks, but S. carpocapsae survived better than S. glaseri at pH 10 for 16 weeks. Both nematodes that had been stored at pH 4, 6 and 8 for 16 weeks and at pH 10 for 1 or more weeks were not infective to G.mellonella larvae. S. carpocapsae survival was greater than that of S. glaseri at oxygen:nitrogen ratios of 1:99, 5:95, and 10:90 during the first 2 weeks and declined sharply to less than 20% after 4 weeks. Survival decreased after 8 weeks as the oxygen concentrations decreased from 20 to 1%, and no nematode survival was observed after 16 weeks. S. carpocapsae pathogenicity was significantly greater than that of S. glaseri during the first 2 weeks. No nematode pathogenicity was observed at oxygen concentrations of 1, 5, and 10% after 2 weeks and at 20% after 16 weeks (Kung et al 1990).
Among the factors limiting the efficacy of nematodes is the need for timing of application to coincide with the phenology of susceptible stages (Jackson & Brooks, 1995). In India the work on steinernematids started in the sixties .In the seventies, Singh and Bardhan (1974) and Singh (1977) worked on mortality in laboratory and field trials, life cycle and compatibility of DD136 with insecticides and fertilizers. Work on heterorhabditids is of recent origin.
In Rice, high mortality of cutworm, Pseudaletia separata and leaf folder, Cirphis compta were obtained with DD 136 strain, S. carpocapsae in lab, green house and field experiments (Israel et al., 1969). Ragi pink borer, Sesamia inferens, rice leaf folder, Cnaphalocrosis medinalis, rice borer, Chilo suppressalis, stem borer, Scirpophaga (= Tryporyza) incertulas and paddy gall midge, Orseolia oryzae were found highly susceptible. At temperature above 300C nematodes were ineffective against S. incertulas (Rao et al., 1971). About 98% mortality of the folder, C. medinalis was reported by Srinivas and Prasad (1991) with S. carpocapsae. Enhancement of efficacy of spray was achieved with addition of 2 % glycerin (Yadav & Rao, 1970). They were found compatible with fertilizers and insecticides and tolerant to osmotic stress (Rao et al., 1975; Das, 1977). Maize stem borer, C. partellus was parasitised by Neoaplectana sp. (Mathur et al., 1966).
In Tobacco, DD-136 caused 66% mortality of cutworm, S. litura (Gupta et al., 1987). Narayanan and Gopalakrishnan (1987) found the effect of S. feltiae to the pre-pupa, pupa, and adult of S. litura. Complete mortality of S. litura pre-pupae was recorded at 10,000 and 1000 IJ. The pupae were less susceptible to nematode infection than pre-pupae and adults. However 20-60% mortality was observed in the case of 7- 8 days old pupa. Infective-stage juveniles of S. carpocapsae entered Liriomyza trifolii through the oviposition puncture made by the female during egg laying, or though an unnatural tear in the mine surface. Nematodes were unable to enter mines by penetrating the intact leaf cuticle (Le Beck, et al., 1993).
In Groundnut, DD-136, Burliar, Melur and Cherikunnu strains of H. bacteriophora were tested by Bhaskaran et al., (1994) on red hairy caterpillar, Amsacta albistriga in field. DD 136 was most effective followed by cherikunnu and burliar strains. The Melur strain was ineffective. In Potato, the cutworms, Agrotis ipsilon and A. segetum were found parasitized (Singh 1977, 1993). The DD-136 strain caused 100% mortality of chafer grubs, Anomala sp. (Rajeswari Sundarababu et al., 1984). Brinjal fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis, mustard sawfly, Athalia proxima (Singh & Bardhan, 1974), castor semi looper, Paralellia algira (Gupta et al., 1987). Sivakumar et al., (1989) found adult grasshoppers (Orthacris simulans), larvae of beetle, Draterius sp., citrus butterfly, Papilio aristolochiae and Ergolis merione were susceptible to H. bacteriophora.
At PDBC, populations of S. glaseri, S.carpocapsae PDBC EN 6.11, PDBC EN 1.3, S. bicornutum PDBC EN 3.1 and H. indica PDBC EN 13.3 were tested against S. litura, H. armigera, O. arenosella, P. xylostella and P. operculella for evaluating bio-efficacy by soil column assay. Among the isolates tested S. bicornutum PDBC EN3.1 and H. indica PDBC EN 13.3 consistently recorded highest mortality (80-100 %) against all insects tested. S. glaseri, S. carpocapsae, PDBC EN 6.11, S. bicornutum PDBC EN 3.1and H. indica 13.3 proved efficient for S. litura with 80 % mortality 96 h after inoculation. S. bicornutum PDBC EN 3.1 and H. indica 13.3 caused 100% mortality of H. armigera larvae 96 h post exposure. Against O. arenosella, S. glaseri and. S. carpocapsae PDBC EN 6.11 were found very effective compared to other isolates with maximum (100%) mortality. Bio-efficacy of all the isolate tested against P. operculella and P. xylostella was found to be on par with 80-100% mortality (Table 1). S. carpocapsae PDBC EN 7.2, PDBC EN 6.11, PDBC EN 1.3, S. bicornutum PDBC EN 2.1, PDBC EN 3.1, S. glaseri and H. indica PDBC EN 13.3 were tested against Holotrichia sp. grubs in lab by soil column assay. At a dosage rate of 750 IJ / insect larva of Steinernema spp., S. glaseri infected successfully and multiplied in Holotrichia sp. Virulence of H. indica PDBC EN 13.3 and PDBC EN 6.71 was on par by 77-88 % mortality of grubs 120 h after inoculation.
Bioefficiency of indigenous isolates of EPN were tested against L. orbonalis in lab and field. In vitro studies indicated that the isolates, PDBC EN 3.1 of S. bicornutum, PDBC EN 13.3 of H.indica and PDBC EN 6.11 of S. carpocapsae recorded maximum mortality of L. orbonalis at 50 IJ/larvae in 48 to 72 h of exposure. Other isolates exhibited lowered mortality either at higher concentration or at longer duration of exposure. Preliminary field trial with the isolates, PDBC EN 6.11 of S. carpocapsae and PDBC EN 6.71 of H. indica on brinjal indicated that higher the concentration of infective juveniles per dose, higher the reduction in borer holes on brinjal fruits and the results were comparable with sprays of neem seed kernel extract. Between the two species evaluated, isolate PDBC EN 6.11 of S. carpocapsae was found to be more effective in reducing the fruit damage in terms of number of fruits with borer holes and increase in yields. (Hussaini et al., 2000a)
To evolve a virulent strain of entomopathogenic nematodes and to compare their virulence against different stages of Agrotis spp., six Steinernema spp. (S. bicornutum PDBC EN 2.1, PDBC EN 3.1, PDBC EN 3.2, S. carpocapsae PDBC EN 6.11, PDBC EN 6.61 and Steinernema sp. PDBC EN 13.1) and two H. indica strains (PDBC EN 6.71, PDBC EN 13.3) were tested against A. ipsilon and A. segetum larvae and pupae separately. Sand column assays were performed at 200 IJs/stage. Mortality of the larvae and pupae was determined 72 h after exposure.
Virulence was measured in terms of mortality of Agrotis spp. S.bicornutum PDBC EN 3.1, 3.2 performed better with 91-100% mortality than H. indica strains for A. ipsilon larvae and vice-versa for A. segetum. Among the steinernematids, S. carpocapsae PDBC EN 6.61 and S. bicornutum and 3.2 were most effective in soil with 80-90% mortality for A. segetum. The effect of Steinernema sp. PDBC EN 13.1 and S.carpocapsae PDBCEN6.11 was on par for both Agrotis spp. larvae.
S. bicornutum PDBC EN 2.1 that performed least with the larvae was effective with 60-80% mortality for pupae of both the species. For A. ipsilon pupae, S. bicornutum PDBC EN 3.2 and S. carpocapsae PDBC EN 6.61 gave 100% mortality. S. bicornutum PDBC EN 3.1 & 3.2 were not effective against A. segetum pupae.
Nematode isolates differed in their rank for virulence between the stages of the insect and also among the species of Agrotis tested as observed by Glazer & Navon (1990). Overall, higher virulence of heterorhabditids and a few steinernematids can be attributed to the cruiser foraging strategy. Lower mortality of pupae may be due to their sedentary nature and an increase in exposure time may increase the mortality percentage. Moreover, pupae with thick chitinous covering may impair the infectivity of the entomopathogenic nematode to certain extent. As the nematode isolates differ in their virulence, combination of the two with different foraging strategies will result in additive effect (Choo et al., 1996) as it takes care of the active larval and sedentary pupal stages of Agrotis spp. Moreover the pathogenicity of the entomopathogenic nematodes to cutworm pupae has not been documented previously.
Virulence of nematodes is often related to plant variety or plant chemistry of the host fed upon. Nematode progeny production was highest from rootworms (Diabrotica undecimpunctata) that had fed on corn, lower for peanut and lowest for squash rootworms fed on bitter squash was lower than from non bitter squash (Barbercheck et al., 1995).
The interaction study between entomopathogenic nematode, insect host and the plant host revealed the indirect effect of host background of test insect on nematode efficacy. A. ipsilon reared on chickpea leaves was found to be more susceptible to S. bicornutum PDBC EN 3.1 and H. indica PDBC EN 13.3 with 100% mortality at 48hours post exposure. A. ipsilon larvae reared on tomato, castor and artificial diet were found susceptible to all isolates tested with 50-100% mortality at 72h. Agrotis larvae reared on pumpkin were found least susceptible. The penetration rate was highest in artificial diet reared larvae with 36% for S. bicornutum and 35% for H. indica. Penetration rate in larvae reared on chickpea and tomato was on par. Penetration rate of EPN in A. ipsilon larvae were drastically reduced when reared on pumpkin leaves. (Hussaini & Singh, -pers.commication)
Progeny production of EPN isolates form A. ipsilon larvae reared on different host plants and artificial diet was quantified. Progeny production of S. bicornutum PDBC EN 3.1, S. carpocapsae PDBC EN 6.11and H. indica PDBC EN 13.3 from natural host plant reared larvae was on par ranging from 0.44-0.825 lakh. The yield of H. indica from pumpkin grown larvae was found to be 0.33 lakh whereas no yield was recorded for Steinernema spp. Progeny production of Steinernema spp. and H.indica isolates from Agrotis larvae reared on artificial diet ranged from 2.4-3.8 lakhs that was much higher compared to those grown on natural host plants.
Lab. experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of food plant on the susceptibility of Sitona lineatus to infection by the entomophilic nematode S. carpocapsae. Larvae collected from early, late and field cultivars of peas and faba beans grown in the field near Krakow were exposed to S. carpocapsae for 6 days. Results showed that mortality of S. lineatus was significantly greater for larvae originally from peas than for those collected from faba beans. Young adults of this pest from pea-fed larvae were also more susceptible to the nematodes. However, larvae of S. lineatus from beans appeared more favourable hosts for nematode multiplication than larvae from peas because greater numbers of juveniles of S. carpocapsae emerged from bean-fed S. lineatus (Jaworska & Ropek, 1994)
Entomopathogenic nematodes have been found to be compatible with commonly used pesticides. Studies were conducted at PDBC to evaluate the effect of five commonly used pesticides including one botanical pesticide on the biological traits viz., activity, penetration rate, infectivity and progeny production of two S. bicornutum and two H. indica isolates was assessed by using G.mellonella larvae (Table 3). Infective juveniles of both the genera tolerated most of the chemicals tested but the response to different pesticides appears to be variable. The inactivity per cent increased with increased time and concentration of pesticide and it was less than 40% and 35% for heterorhabditids and steinernematids respectively at field recommended dosages. In general, infectivity of pesticide exposed infective juveniles was not adversely affected (Fig. 1). Exposure for 72 h to pesticides impaired the penetration rate of S. bicornutum isolates (30-40%) while additive response was observed in H. indica isolates (Fig. 2). Overall, no additive or synergistic response was observed in progeny production of pesticide exposed infective juveniles. Among the pesticides, mancozeb and neem were safe to all the nematode populations while the latter was deleterious to H. indica PDBC 13.3. Fifteen out of twenty combinations tested were compatible and may be included in any IPM schedule (Hussaini et al., 2000).
Factors affecting bioefficacy:
Thermal adaptation of EPN- niche breadth for infection, establishment, and reproduction has been worked out . The thermal niche breadths for infection, establishment, and reproduction of 12 species and strains of EPN collected from diverse climatic regions was determined. S. riobravis infected G. mellonella larvae at the widest temperature range (10-390C), whereas S. feltiae at the narrowest (8-300C). Thermal niche breadth for establishment within hosts was the widest for S. glaseri (10-370C) and the narrowest for S. feltiae (8-300C). Thermal niche breadth for reproduction was widest for S. glaseri, (12-320C) and the narrowest for S. carpocapsae (20-300C). S. scapterisci (20-320C), S. riobravis (20- 350C), and Steinernema sp. (20-320C) were more adapted to warm temperature reproduction, and S. feltiae to cooler temperatures (10-250C). Although heterorhabditids are endemic to warmer climates, the upper thermal limits and temperature optima for reproduction of H. bacteriophora and H. megedis were cooler than that of some of the steinernematids from South America and the Caribbean. Thermal niche breadths did not differ between conspecific populations isolated from different localities, but were different for different species isolated fom the same locality. It was concluded that entomophilic nematode species have well-defined thermal niches which may be unaffected by their locality (Grewal et al., 1994).
Table 1. Use of EPN against insect pests
S. No Pest/disease Crop Bioagent /Formulation Lab/field trial Reference
1. Tryporyza incertulas Rice, Sugarcane S. carpocapsae Field Rao & Manjunath 1966
2. Chilo partellus Maize Steinernema sp. Field Mathur et al.,1966
3. Tryporyza incertulas Chilo suppressalis Cirphis compta Pseudaletia separate Paddy S. carpocapsae Field Israel et al., 1969
4. Rice pests Paddy S. carpocapsae Yadava & Rao 1970
5. Arctiidae, Lymantridae, Noctuidae, Pyralidae S. carpocapsae Mathur et al 1971
6. Tryporyza incertulus Rice S. carpocapsae Rao et al., 1971
7. Athalia proxima, Aulacophora foveicollis, Diacrissia obliqua, Dysdercus singulatus, H.armigera, Leucinodes orbonalis, S. litura S. carpocapsae Singh & Bardhan 1974
8. A. ipsilon, A. segetum, Amathes nigrum, and white grubs Lab Steinernema sp. Singh 1977
10. Anomala sp. Potato S. carpocapsae Lab Rajeswari Sundarababu et al., 1984
11. Spodoptera litura, Helicoverpa armigera, Chilo partellus S. carpocapsae Lab Gupta et al., 1987
12. Spodoptera litura Lab S. carpocapsae, S. feltiae Lab Narayanan & Gopalakrishnan,1987
13. Helicoverpa armigera Mortality tests S. carpocapsae, S. feltiae Lab Ghode et al.,1988
14. Orthacris simulans, Draterius sp. Papilio aristolochiae ., Ergolis merione C.cephalonica Susceptibility tests H. bacteriophora LabSivakumar et al., 1988
15. Cnaphalocrosis medinalis S. carpocapsaeSrinivas & Prasad ,1991
16. Spodoptera litura S. carpocapsae S. feltiae Singh et al.,1992
17. Papilio sp. Citrus Stenernema sp. Singh,1993
18. Amsacta albistriga Peanut S. carpocapsae, H.indica, H. bacteriophora Bhaskaran et al 1984
19. Pieris brassicae, Aphitobius diaperinus, Oryzaephilus mercator S. feltiae, S. carpocapsae Mathur et al 1994
20. Basilepta fulvicorne Conognethes punctiferalis S.feltiae S.glaseri Lab . Field Balu and Varatharasan 1991
21. Oidoporus longicollis Banana H.indica Lab Padmanabhan et al., 2002
22. Leucinodes orbonalis Brinjal Steinernema carpocapsae Heterorhabditis indica/ spray formulation Hussaini et al .,2002c
23. Agrotis ipsilon Tomato S. bicornutum/bait & alginate capsule Lab Hussaini et al .,2001b
24. A. ipsilon S. carpocapsae S. abbasi and H. indica/ talc based Hussaini et al., 2002
25. Helicoverpa armigera Pigeon pea Cotton H. indica PDBC, 2001
26. S. litura Tobacco Nurseries S. carpocapsae Field Sitaramaiah et al ., 2002
27. A.ipsilon Tomato S.bicornutumlab Hussaini et al., 2001b
28. S. litura Bioefficiency test S. carpocapsae, S. feltiae Narayanan & Gopalakrishnan ,1987
29. H. armigera Mortality tests S. carpocapsae, S. feltiae Sivakumar et al. .,1989
30. Orthacris simulans, Drasterius sp. Papilio aristotelia and Ergolis merione C.cephalonica Susceptibility tests H. bacteriophora Ghode et al. ,1988
31. Cylas formicarius Liriomyza P.xylostella Sweet Potato H. indica S.glaseri Lab Subramanian, 2000
32. S.litura CastorSezhian,1992
33. Holotrichia serrata Sugarcane H. indica H. bacteriophora S.glaseri S.riobrave Lab Sankaranarayanan et al., 2006
34. R.ferrugenius, O.rhinceros R.ferrugenius Coconut Coconut H. indica, Steinernema sp. H. indica Steinernema sp. S. glaseri lab Sosamma & Rasmi, 2001 Banu et al., 2003
35. Spodoptera litura. Steinernema sp. Heterorhabditis sp Lab Rajkumar et al.,2003a
36. S.litura Blackgram H. indica S.glaseri Glass house/ microplot Umamaheshwari et al., 2005
37. Lepidopteron Insect pests Steinernema sp. Heterorhabditis sp Rajesh Sharma et al., 2005.
38. H. armigera, S. litura, P. xylostella and C. medinalis Eupterote mollifera H. indica S.glaseri Lab Lab Saravanapriya & and Subramanian, 2007 Subramanian et al., 2005
39. M. javanica / Holotrichia consanguinea complex M.incognita Peanut Tomato S.riobrave S.carpocapsae, H.indica,S.abbasi Pot microplot Vyas et al., 2005 Hussaini et al., 2008a.
40. Basilepta fulvicorne Cardamom H. indica and Steinernema sp. Lab,Field JosephRajkumar et al, 2005 Varadarasan et al.,2006
41. A.ipsilon Potato S.riobrave Pots Vyas et al., 2004
42. White grubs Turf S.carpocapsae S.abbasi H. indica H. bacteriophora Field Hussaini et al., 2005
43. Achaea janata,Cnaphalocrocis medinalis, G. mellonella, Oryctes rhinoceros, Pericallia ricini, R. ferrugineus and S. litura. H. indica Lab Cannayane et al., 2007
44. H. armigera Cotton H.indica,H.bacteriophora,S.glaseri Field Jothi & Mehta ,2003
45. H. armigera Gram, Cotton, Tomato Steinernema sp. Heterorhabditissp., Lab & Field Siddiqui et al., 2008e
46. S.litura,H.serrataS.glaseri,H.minutus Lab., GH Prabhuraj et al., 2002
47. S.litura lab Shakeela &Hussaini,2006
48. H.armigera chickpea S.glaseri Pots Patel & Vyas 1995
49. H.armigera chickpea Heterorhabditis sp. Pot Vyas et al., 2003
50. H.armigera Pigeon pea Field Sathiah et al., 2005
51. Thermal tolerance S.masoodi lab Ali &Ahmed,2008
52. H.armigera,C.cephalonica S.masoodi lab Ali et al., 2006
53. Athalia proxima S.masoodi,S.seemae lab Parvez et al., 2007
54. Sciarid fly mushroom S.carpocapsae lab Parihar,et al., 2007.
55. S.litura,H.armigera, P.operculella,P.xylostella, O.arenosella S.carpocapsae,S.bicornutum,S.tami,H.indica lab Hussaini et al., 2008b.
56. Compatibility with pesticides H.indica,S.glaseri lab Priya & Subramanian,2008
57. Chilo sacchariphagus indicus Sugarcane H.indica,H.bacteriophora,S.glaseri,S.feltiae, S.riobrave lab Sankaranarayanan et al., 2008
55. Nezara viridula Lab S.masoodi,S.seemae,Steinernema sp.IIPR 03 Rashid Parvez et al., 2008

Abstracts:
1. The pathogenicity of entomopathogenic nematodes depends on strains and target pests. Choo, et al (1995) studied the pathogenicty of Korean entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinernematidae and heterorhabditidae ) against P. xylostella. Mortalities of P. xylostella larvae were 51.8, 77.8, 96.3 and 100% in Hanrim Steinernema sp and 50.0, 74.1, 96.3 and 98.1% by Hamyang Heterorhabditis spp. on filter paper when larvae were exposed to 3, 6, 12 or 24 nematodes. Mortalities on kale leaves were 44.4, 63.0, 76.1 and 94.5% in Hanrim Steinernema sp. and 79.7, 81.6, 94.4 and 100% in Hamyang Heterorhabditis spp., respectively. A field test resulted in 72.0 and 84.1% mortality of Hanrim Steinernema sp. and Hamyang Heterorhabditis spp., respectively, 14 days after the application of 300,000 nematodes per plot. Although mortalities of Chilo suppressalis larvae showed no difference at great numbers, Hamyang Heterorhabditis spp. (47.3-100%) were more effective than Hanrim Steinernema spp. (34.3-83.3%) at low numbers. Mortalities of Curculio sikkimensis larvae were 50.0 or 80.0% (10 nematodes/larva), and 80.0 or 90.0% (20 nematodes/larva), respectively for Sancheong Steinernema spp. and Hamyang Heterorhabditis spp. Mortalities of Dichocrocis punctiferalis [Conogethes punctiferalis] larvae were 70.0 or 90.0% (10 nematodes/larva), and 90.0 or 100% (20 nematodes/larva) in Sancheong Steinernema spp. and Hamyang Heterorhabditis spp., respectively. When Pryeria sinica larvae were exposed to nematodes, Pocheon Steinernema spp. caused 96.7-100%, but Dongrae Steinernema spp. caused only 63.3-76.7% mortality. Mason and Wright (1997) evaluated pathogenicity of two isolates of Steinernema spp. (M87 and SSL85), Heterorhabditis spp. and H. indica was assessed against P. xylostella in the laboratory with a view to using these nematodes as biological control agents. Infection of larvae commenced within 3 hours of exposure, with maximum levels of infection occurring after 24 hrs. Concentration-dependent studies showed that between 1 and 18% of the initial concentration of nematodes infected larvae of P. xylostella.

2. Ratnasinghe and Hague (1995) assessed the susceptibility of P. xylostella to three species of Steinernema viz. S. carpocapsae, S. riobrave and S. feltiae and one isolate of Heterorhabditis sp. Among all isolates of Steinernema sp., S. carpocapsae ALL was the most effective giving 100% mortality after 6h. Exposure when assessed by invasion of infective juveniles. There was no significant difference in susceptibility between Steinernema sp. when mortality was used as the method of evaluation. The Heterorhabditis sp was in effective.
Indoor and field tests were carried out in suburbs of Harbin, Mudanjiang and Acheng cities, Heilongjiang Province, China in 1991-1993 for determining the control effects of 5 strains of 3 steinernematid nematode (Zhao et al., 1996). S. feltiae (Mexican and Beijing strains), S. bibionis (Otio strain), S. glaseri (NC32 and NC34 strains), against 5 lepidopterous insect pest: oriental armyworm (Mythimna separata), cabbage armyworm (Mamestra brassicae), Argyrogramma agnata, Homoeosoma nebulella and diamond-back moth (P. xylostella) and 3 coleopterous insect pests: white-spotted flower chafer (Liocola brevitarsis), lady bird skinner (Henosepilachna vigintioctomaculata) and barley wireworm (Agriotes fuscicollis). The results showed that all these insect pests except wireworm were infected by the nematodes.

3. In Malaysia, Razak et al. (1996) evaluated the potential of S. carpocapsae strain All, against 2 serious pests of Malaysian crops from 2 different habitats, namely Rhytidodera simulans, the mango shoot borer (cryptic habitat) and P. xylostella, diamondback moth (foliar habitat), was evaluated. Larvae of R. simulans of varying body weights, (ranging from 0.5 to 2.2 g) from infected mango branches were exposed to 5, 10, 20, 40, 50, 100, 200, 400 and 800 infective juveniles (J3) in 6 cm diameter petridishes lined with filter paper. Fifty percent of the insects were killed within 48 hours of exposure to J3 at all inoculum levels, and more than 40% of the remaining insects were killed during the following 24 hours. The J3 was able to develop and reproduce in the insect cadaver. At lower inoculum levels the motility of the insect was reduced. The LC50 of S. carpocapsae for the mango borer appeared to be between 40 to 50 J3. P. xylostella seemed to be more susceptible to the S. carpocapsae strain All. Insect mortality of 100% resulted when the insects were exposed to 100, 200, 400, 800, and 1600 J3 while feeding on Brassica chinensis var. pekinensis leaf disks in 6 cm diameter petri dishes. The J3s were able to develop and propagate in the insect cadaver. Within 72 hours of the insects being killed, the entire body was filled with nematodes at different developmental stages. The number of nematodes recovered from each dissected cadaver ranged from 12 to 99, comprising males, females and the propagative stage. It was evident that the J3 penetrated the insects through the spiracles and the anal opening in P. xylostella, and probably through a similar process in R. simulans, as indicated by the congregations of large number of J3 in the spiracle.
4. Mason and Wright (1997) evaluated the pathogenecity of two isolates of Steinernema spp. (M87 and SSL 85), Heterorhabditis spp and H. indica against Plutella xylostella in the laboratory. Larval infection commenced after three hours of exposure with a maximum level of infection occurred after 24 hours of exposure. Concentration dependent studies showed that between 1 to 18 percent of initial concentration of nematodes infected the larvae of Plutella xylostella.
5. Wright et al., (1997) assessed the effect of temperature, dessication and sunlight on the efficiency of two Steinernematids (SSL 85 and M 87) in Malaysia against third instar larvae of Plutella xylostella and observed that local selected nematode species were highly adaptable and bears a high level of efficacy against target pests. Low volume spray and better time of application were also suggested.
6. Ratnasinghe and Hague (1997) studied the efficacy of three steinernematid nematodes Steinernema carpocapsae, S. riobravis and S. feltiae against P. xylostella and reported that LT50 was less than 3 hours for all three nematodes but S. carpocapsae was the most virulent and got higher mortality rate after 6 hours of exposure. The prepupal stage was very susceptible and caused 40 percent mortality by S. carpocapsae.
7. Baur et al. (1998) reported that ALL strain of S. carpocapsae nematode produced in vitro was as effective as produced in vivo. Resistance of P. xylostella to Bacillus thuringiensis (Kurstaki) did not confer cross-resistance to nematodes. Mortality caused was higher in early instar than later stages of P. xylostella, no interaction occurred when B. thuringiensis was combined against a susceptible strain of P. xylostella but an antagonistic effect occurred between two pathogens against a strain of Plutella xylostella resistant to Bacillus thuringiensis .
The effect of flow rate, initial concentration of infective juveniles and adjuvant on infection of larvae of P. xylostella was evaluated following application of Heterorhabditis sp., Steinernema sp. (SSL85: 43) and Steinernema sp. (M87: 45) using spinning disc sprayers on Chinese cabbage at LD 16:8 and 25°C. Heterorhabditis sp. and Steinernema sp. (SSL85) were applied with a Herbaflex sprayer at a flow rate of 30 ml/min at 1500, 3000, 6000 and 12000 infective juveniles/ml and Steinernema sp (M87) at 1500, 3000 and 6000 Ijs /ml. Each nematode isolate was applied with the Micron Ulva+ sprayer at flow rates of 55, 120, 200 and 300 ml/min and concentrations of 3000 and 6000 infective juveniles/ml. The adjuvants Triton X100, glycerol, Croduvant, Crovol L27 and Crovol L40 were tested at 2 and 4% v/v. Survival was evaluated for infective juveniles of Heterorhabditis sp. on Chinese cabbage leaf discs at 25°C and 75% RH for 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 0, 120, 150, 180 or 240 min. Increasing the concentration of infective juveniles of Heterorhabditis sp. and Steinernema sp (SSL85) resulted in a significant increase in larval mortality. However mortality did not exceed 75%. Increasing the initial concentration of infective juveniles of Steinernema sp. (SSL85) resulted in a significantly higher number of nematodes infecting larvae. Increasing flow rate generally led to significant increases in mortality. Addition of adjuvants had no significant effect on mortality of P. xylostella, but generally resulted in a significant increase in intensity of infection. Addition of adjuvants did not significantly affect desiccation survival of infective juveniles. Nematodes were able to infect larvae following spraying, with high levels of infection being observed until at least 150 min after spraying. (Mason et al., 1999).
8. Nickle-WR; Shapiro-M. 1994. Effects of 8 brighteners as solar radiation protectants for Steinernema carpocapsae, All strain. Journal-of-Nematology, 26: 4 Supp., 782-784.
Seven commercially available Blankophor fluorescent brighteners were compared with the standard Tinopal LPW as solar radiation protectants for Steinernema carpocapsae (All strain). Blankophor BBH and Tinopal LPW were the most successful UV screens, with 95% of the original nematode infectivity to larvae of the greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella, retained after 4 hours of exposure to direct sunlight. The Blankophor HRS and DML preserved 80 and 85% infectivity, and the P167 preserved 70% infectivity after the sunlight exposure. The other Blankophors (RKH, LPG and BSU) were not as effective.
9. CONTROL-LAB: Cabanillas and Raulston 1994 found Pathogenicity of Steinernema riobrave against corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea prepupae and pupae in maize fields in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas was tested under laboratory conditions at 230C. Exposure to 10, 20, 40, 80 and 100 infective juveniles per prepupa in filter paper resulted in mortalities of 40, 55, 85, 90 and 100%, resp. The LC50 of S. riobravis for H. zea prepupae was 13 nematodes per prepupa. The nematodes multiplied similarly in prepupae and pupae of corn earworm with average nematode production per prepupa and pupa cadavers of 321 000 and 300 000, resp. Production of nematodes was independent of concn of infective juveniles from 5 to 100 per host. The overall yield of nematodes per prepupa and pupa was 311 000. The highest average yield of nematodes per insect cadaver was 375 000 which occurred at an exposure concn of 40 infective juveniles per prepupa. These results indicated a high degree of infectivity and pathogenicity of Steinernema riobravis and its symbiotic Xenorhabdus bacterium to corn earworm and suggested that it may have great potential against prepupal and pupal stages.
10. CONTROL-FD: Boselli-M; Curto-GM; Tacconi-R; Pollini-A; Santi-R. 1994. Field trials with Steinernema carpocapsae and Heterorhabiditis sp. juveniles against the sugarbeet weevil, Conorhynchus mendicus Gyll., in Italy. Nematologica. 1994, 40: 3, 463-465.
AB: A double application at 2.56 J1/m2 of Steinernema carpocapsae (All strain) and Heterorhabiditis sp. (NL-HL 81 strain) increased the level of larval infection of Conorhynchus mendicus compared with a single application at 5.06 J1/m2 in field experiments in Italy during 1991. It also reduced the percentage of weevil infected roots compared with deltamethrin (at 0.016 g.a./m2) and the control and caused a significant reduction in damage to the roots compared to all treatments. Treatment was more effective in silty clay soils than peaty ones.
11. CONTROL-FD: Abdel-Kawy-AGM; El-Bishry-MH; El-Kifl-TAH. 1992. Controlling the leopard moth borer, Zeuzera pyrina by three entomopathogenic nematode species in the field. Bulletin-of-Faculty-of-Agriculture,-University-of-Cairo. 1992, 43: 2, 769-780.
AB: Field experiments were conducted in Egypt in 1991 to evaluate the efficacy of the entomophilic nematodes Steinernema carpocapsae, Heterorhabditis heliothidis and H. bacteriophora against the cossid Zeuzera pyrina on apple and olive trees. The nematodes were applied either by spraying (at 5000 or 10 000 infective stages of distilled water) or by injection (at 2500 or 5000 infective stages per ml of distilled water) into larval galleries of the pest. S. carpocapsae was the most effective nematode species against larvae of Z. pyrina using both methods of application, followed by H. heliothidis and H.bacteriophora. Mortality ranged from 31 to 88%, depending on the method and time of application, and concn of the nematode suspension. Injecting the nematodes directly into larval galleries was more effective than spraying in the summer. Spraying was, however, very effective in the autumn (October and November) when the temperature ranged between 15 and 280C. The rates of mortality were positively correlated with the concn of the nematode suspension. Better control of larvae of Z. pyrina using the nematodes was achieved on olive trees.
12.Shannag Cabanillas-HE; Raulston-JR. 1995. Impact of S. riobravis (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) on the control of Helicoverpa zea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in corn. Journal-of-Economic-Entomology, 1995, 88: 1, 58-64.
AB: The efficacy of using an endemic entomopathogenic nematode, S. riobravis, to suppress prepupal and pupal populations of Helicoverpa zea in the soil was evaluated in Texas. The optimum timing of nematode soil application in relation to larval exit from the maize ear, the effects of nematode concn, introduction method, and persistence in control of the pest were determined. Better parasitism resulted when S. riobravis infective juveniles were applied on the subsurface + surface (81%) than when they were applied on the soil surface alone (45%), in the greenhouse. Striking results were obtained with 2 billion nematodes/ha applied when 10% of the larvae had exited the ear to pupate or when 50% had developed to large larvae. This resulted in 95 and 100% parasitism, resp. A low rate of parasitism (22%) was observed in plots that received nematodes when 40% of the larvae had developed to medium size larvae. Parasitism in all plots that received nematodes was higher than the 11% natural parasitism observed in control plots. S. riobravis persisted (22%) in this sandy clay loam soil during the 75-day period field evaluations. These findings show the potential of using S. riobravis for soil application in source areas where the maize acts as a nursery crop to suppress the build-up of adult populations of H. zea.
13.Ivanova-TS; Borovaya-VP; Danilov-LG. 1994. A biological method of controlling the potato moth. Zashchita-Rastenii-Moskva. 1994, No. 2, 39.
AB: In an experiment, potatoes infested with larvae of the potato moth [Phthorimaea operculella] were sprayed with aqueous suspensions of the entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema feltiae, S. bibionis, S. carpocapsae or Heterorhabditis heliothidis at a rate of 20 000 infective larvae per receptacle (a crystallizing basin). The first 3 species resulted in 95.5, 93.4 and 93.1% mortality, resp. Larvae of all instars, and within as well as on the surface of the potatoes, were affected, and infective larvae of the next generation appeared in 6 days.
14.Gill-SA; Raupp-MJ. 1994. Using entomopathogenic nematodes and conventional and biorational pesticides for controlling bagworm. Journal-of-Arboriculture. 1994, 20: 6, 318-322.
AB: Bagworm, Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis, damages a wide range of evergreen and deciduous plants in the USA. Trials were conducted in Maryland during 1992-93 to control mid- to late-instar bagworm larvae on arborvitae [Thuja occidentalis] grown in large containers. Treatments tested included 2 formulations of neem, carbaryl, acephate, cyfluthrin, formulations of the entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema carpocapsae and S. feltiae, and Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki. In 1992, neem gave the least control (36-56% reduction) and was not tested in 1993. The nematodes, either alone or with oil or antidessicant, gave 91-100% control of larvae. The synthetic pyrethroid cyfluthrin gave 100% control; carbaryl and acephate also gave acceptable control (83 and 86%, respectively). In 1993, cyfluthrin gave the greatest control of both mid- and late-instar larvae (95-97%). The biological control agents, Bacillus and the nematodes, provided intermediate levels of control. Both species of STEINERNEMA were effective.
15.Gill-S; Davidson-J; MacLachlan-W; Potts-W. 1994. Controlling banded ash clearwing moth borer using entomopathogenic nematodes. Journal-of-Arboriculture. 1994, 20: 3, 146-149.
AB: Banded ash clearwing moth (Podosesia aureocincta) in 24 green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) trees - caliper diameter 10- to 13-cm - growing in a nursery in Laytonsville, Maryland, were treated with the nematode, Steinernema carpocapsae (strain 25) at two different rates (500 or 1000 nematodes per 2.53 cm2 bark area). Eight infested green ash were controls in the field trial. Nematodes were applied in July using a backpack sprayer. Applications of entomopathogenic nematodes significantly reduced the number of living larvae associated with the plants.
16. Curto-SM; Boselli-M; Paganini-U; Ghedini-R. 1992. Control trials against sugarbeet weevil (Conorhynchus mendicus Gyll.) (Coleoptera Curculionidae) using entomopathogenic nematodes. Informatore-Fitopatologica. 1992, 42: 12, 45-49.
AB: The effectiveness of 2 commercial preparations of entomophilic nematodes against Conorhynchys mendicus on sugarbeet was evaluated in field trials at 2 farms with clay soils in the Italian provinces of Ferrara and Ravenna in 1991. The nematodes tested were HETERORHABDITIS sp. (strain NL-HL81) and Steinernema carpocapsae [Neoaplectana feltiae] (ALL strain), each applied at a concn of 2.5 billion juveniles/ha at the peak exit of overwintered adults of C. mendicus (in late May/early June), and again when the young larvae of the pest were present on the sugarbeet roots (mid- to late June). At the Ferrara site, plots were sprinkle irrigated after treatment with a quantity of water corresponding to a rainfall of 10 mm, while at the Tavenna site, plots received a simple wetting with 1800 litres of water/ha, half before and half after the distribution of nematodes, and were irrigated after the first treatment with a volume of water equivalent to about 20 mm of rainfall. The effectiveness of the nematodes was compared with that of cypermethrin and deltamethrin at the Ferrara and Ravenna sites, resp. The results confirmed the effectiveness of both nematode species against C. mendicus. The density of pest larvae was 0.05-1.65 after treatment with the nematodes compared with about 5 in untreated plots. Damage caused to sugarbeet roots was reduced and gross marketable production was increased. Both nematode species were more effective than the conventional insecticides. It is concluded that it was sufficient to distribute the nematodes in at least 500 liters of water/ha as long as the plots were irrigated after treatment (in the absence of rain) in order to create conditions more favourable to the movement of the nematodes towards their hosts.
17. CONTROL-FD: Glazer-I; Gol'-berg-A. 1993. Field efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes against the beetle Maladera matrida (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Biocontrol-Science-and-Technology. 1993, 3: 3, 367-376.
AB: Single, double and triple releases of the entomophilic nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora reduced the population of the scarabaeid Maladera matrida on groundnuts by 70, 75 and 93%, resp., in microplot tests in Israel during 1989-91. Simultaneous and late (2 weeks after infestation) applications reduced beetle numbers by 63 and 79%, resp. in the microplots, while early application (2 weeks before infestation) did not reduce the beetle population. In a field trial, reductions in insect population and crop damage were achieved by early treatment with the nematode and by heptachlor, leading to reductions in the insect population of 60 and 90%, resp., 4 weeks after nematode application. However, the nematode treatment did not maintain its effectiveness for a longer period and pest damage increased to the same level as the untreated control after 7 weeks. When the nematodes were applied at different concn (0.25-1.0X106 infective juveniles (IJs) per m2), their effectiveness was not related to the concn. The only significant reduction in insect levels was *ed in the treatment with 0.5X106 IJs/m2. In a 2nd field trial, both H.bacteriophora and Steinernema glaseri [Neoaplectana glaseri] reduced insect populations significantly by about 50% in comparison to the control. In the 3rd trial, treatment with H.bacteriophora resulted in a decrease in insect population of 90%, while treatment with S. carpocapsae [N. carpocapsae] reduced the grub numbers by 40%. Small larvae (1-4 mm long, 1st-2nd instars) were not affected by nematode treatment, while numbers of medium-sized and large larvae were reduced 2- and 3-fold, resp. Nematodes were recovered by 'nematode traps' containing larvae of Galleria mellonella from treated plots 78 days after application.
18. Molina-A-JP; Lopez-N-JC 2002 Displacement and parasitism of entomonematodes in berries infested by the coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Revista-Colombiana-de-Entomologia 28: 2, 145-151.
AB: The use of entomopathogenic nematodes is a possible alternative for the control of the coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei in berries that have fallen to the soil. The texture of the soil is a limiting factor of EN persistence, displacement and host finding. In this experiment, the displacement of two EN species viz. H. bacteriophora and S. feltiae towards coffee berries (mature and dry) was evaluated. The variables evaluated were index of displacement (IA), and penetration into berry (IPF), variables evaluated initially in sand. Once the berry type was selected, the effect of two soil textures viz., loam clay sandy and loam was evaluated. A rectangle of acrylic was used as an experimental unit, and 100 infective juveniles (IJ) were placed 5 cm away from the berry (mature or dry). The time of evaluation was 168 h after the beginning of the experiment. In the selection of the berry, the greatest value for IA was exhibited by the dry berry and had a value of 21.13&plusmin3.3% and IPF of 10.91&plusmin2.2% (average&plusminstandard error), results which show that the values differ statistically (LSD 0.05) from those obtained for the mature berry (IA: 5.63&plusmin1.48%; IPF: 3.56&plusmin1.06%) independent of EN. The tested soil textures had no effect in the displacement of EN towards the dry berry. The greatest values for IA (15.73&plusmin4.87%) and IPF (7.47&plusmin3,51%) were obtained for H. bacteriophora in loam texture and for S. feltiae in loam clay sandy texture with 7.33&plusmin3.51 (IA) and 4.33&plusmin1.12% (IPF). The displacement tendencies of EN, and their effect on the mortality of individuals of H. hampei in different stages of development are discussed in this paper.
19. CONTROL-LAB: Glazer-I; Nakache-Y; Klein-M. 1992. Use of entomopathogenic nematodes against foliage pests. Hassadeh. 1992, 72: 5, 626-630, 638.
AB: On bean plants in the laboratory, application to the foliage of 500 and 1000 infective juveniles (IJ) per ml of the entomophilic nematode Steinernema carpocapsae (strain 'pye') was required to attain >85% control of larvae of the noctuids Earias insulana and Spodoptera littoralis, resp. Addition of the antidesiccants Biosys 727 (20% wt/wt), natural wax (18% wt/wt) or Folicote (6% wt/wt) reduced the concn required to 125 and 250 IJ/ml, resp. In microplot experiments, application of the microbial pesticide at 250 IJ/ml mixed with 6% Folicote reduced damage to cotton foliage by S. littoralis by 46%. Similar treatment at 125 IJ/ml reduced damage by E. insulana by 76%. Treatment with nematodes alone reduced densities by 66% as compared with the control. In a field experiment in Israel, damage by S. littoralis was reduced by 41%.
20. CONTROL-LAB: Singh-SP. 1993. Effectiveness of an indigenous entomophilic nematode against citrus butterfly. Journal-of-Insect-Science. 1993, 6: 1, 107-108.
AB: The entomophilic nematode STEINERNEMA sp., isolated from Agrotis segetum and A. spinifera [A. biconica] in India, was shown to be highly effective against larvae of Papilio demoleus in the laboratory, causing 90-100% mortality within 10 days. of root gnats (Sciaridae: Diptera) by Tetradonema plicans Hungerford (Tetradonematidae: Nematoda) produced by a novel culture
21. CONTROL-lab: Sosa-O Jr.; Hall-DG; Schroeder-WJ. 1993. Mortality of sugarcane borer (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) treated with entomopathogenic nematodes in field and laboratory trials. Journal -American-Society-of-Sugar-Cane-Technologists. 1993, 13: 18-21.
AB: Three species of entomopathogenic nematodes were evaluated for their effectiveness in the control of Diatraea saccharalis. Application of 5000 individuals/ml of Steinernema carpocapsae, Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and S. glaseri [Neoaplectana glaseri] to the diet of D. saccharalis resulted in 100, 100 and 30% mortality, resp., of 3rd and 4th instar larvae. S. carpocapsae also caused 95% mortality of larvae tunnelling inside pieces of sugarcane stem. However, application of 3.7 billion nematodes/ha in a water spray in an informal field trial failed to control D. saccharalis. This paper was presented at 22nd annual joint meeting of the Florida and Louisiana divisions of the ASSCT, held in St. Augustine, Florida, on 17-19 June 1992. .
22. CONTROL-LAB: Peters-A; Ehlers-RU. 1994. Susceptibility of leatherjackets (Tipula paludosa and Tipula oleracea; Tipulidae; Nematocera) to the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae. Journal-of-Invertebrate-Pathology. 1994, 63: 2, 163-171.
AB: Laboratory bioassays were conducted to investigate the susceptibility of larvae of Tipula paludosa and T. oleracea to Steinernema feltiae [STEINERNEMA bibionis]. Dauer juveniles (DJs) entered the larval haemocoel mainly by direct penetration of the cuticle and were encapsulated in the haemocoel in all except 1st instars. Depending on the number of invading nematodes larval death could be prevented by this encapsulation. Larval mortality was correlated with the number of invading nematodes, indicating that penetration by DJs was the limiting step during pathogenesis. In contrast to other instars, the dose-mortality response of young 1st instars was less pronounced. T. oleracea was more susceptible to S. bibionis than T. paludosa. In both Tipula species maximum mortality was *ed for the 1st instar approaching the 1st moult, while young 1st instars were less susceptible. Susceptibility of 2nd- to 4th-instar larvae decreased with their age. For T. oleracea, LC50 values ranged from 7 DJs per insect for the 1st instar approaching the 1st moult, to 56 DJs for the 4th instar. Nematode invasion was not correlated to CO2 release by the different larval stages. It was therefore, concluded that penetration was not triggered by CO2, but by other more specific stimuli.
23. CONTROL LAB: Townsend-ML; Steinkraus-DC; Johnson-DT. 1994. Mortality response of green June beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) to four species of entomopathogenic nematodes. Journal-of-Entomological-Science. 1994, 29: 2, 268-275.
AB: Four species of entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinernema carpocapsae (All strain), S. feltiae (NC strain), S. glaseri and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora) were tested in the laboratory for their effect on larvae of the scarabaeid Cotinus nitida. When nematodes were injected into the foregut of larvae (ca. 1000 nematodes/larva), S. carpocapsae, S. feltiae, S. glaseri and H. bacteriophora caused similar mortality (65, 45, 65 and 63%, resp.). At a concn of 10 nematodes/larva, S. carpocapsae produced significantly higher mortality (51%) than the other 3 nematode species. Increasing nematode concn resulted in only a slight increase in mortality of larvae injected perorally with any of the 4 nematode species. Water filtrates from whole nematodes or ground nematode tissue supernatants from S. carpocapsae and H.bacteriophora injected perorally into the alimentary tract did not kill larvae of C. nitida. Thus, live nematodes appeared to be necessary to cause mortality. Subcuticular or peroral injections of S. carpocapsae or H.bacteriophora (1000 nematodes/larva) produced similar mortality of larvae ranging from 60 to 70%. Nematode-killed larvae were dissected (n=277) but only 2 cadavers contained live nematodes and nematodes did not successfully reproduce in any nematode-killed larvae. Possible explanations for the failure of cadavers to produce nematode progeny are discussed.
24. CONTROL-LAB: Schroeder-PC; Ferguson-CS; Shields-EJ; Villani-MG. 1994. Pathogenicity of rhabditid nematodes (Nematoda: Heterorhabditidae and steinernematidae) to alfalfa snout beetle (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) larvae. Journal-of-Economic-Entomology. 1994, 87: 4, 917-922.
AB: Three naturally occurring entomopathogenic nematodes (Heterorhabditis bacteriophora (Oswego strain), Steinernema carpocapsae (NY001 strain) and STEINERNEMA sp. (undescribed) (NY008-2E strain)), and 4 nematodes obtained from commercial sources (H.bacteriophora (NC strain), Steinernema feltiae (N-356 strain), STEINERNEMA riobravis (355) strain, and Steinernema glaseri (326 strain)) were tested for pathogenicity to larvae of Otiorhynchus ligustici. In laboratory bioassays using soil, all nematodes except H.bacteriophora (Oswego strain) caused <50% mortality in mature larvae exposed to 200 infective juveniles. At a similar rate, H.bacteriophora (Oswego strain) caused 65-80% mortality in mature larvae. In the greenhouse, H.bacteriophora (Oswego strain) killed 90% of larvae infesting potted lucerne plants 14 days after application of 30 000 infective juveniles to the soil surface. Application of 4500 infective juveniles of H.bacteriophora larvae infesting lucerne fields in New York.
25. CONTROL-LAB: Henneberry-TJ; Lindegren-JE; Forlow-Jech-L; Burke-RA. 1995. Pink bollworm (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), cabbage looper, and beet armyworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) pupal susceptibility to Steinernema nematodes (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae). Journal-of-Economic-Entomology. 1995, 88: 4, 835-839.
AB: Laboratory studies were conducted to determine the susceptibility of pupae of Pectinophora gossypiella, Trichoplusia ni and Spodoptera exigua to 2 species of entomophilic nematodes, Steinernema riobravis and S. carpocapsae. Uninjured pupae of P. gossypiella or pupae with a completely formed integument were not susceptible to nematode infection (>95% adult emergence). P. gossypiella pupae with pin-inflicted punctures, injuries from handling or incomplete integument formation were susceptible to nematode infection. Uninjured pupae of T. ni and S. exigua were susceptible to infection by both nematode species. Spiracular orifices of T. ni and S. exigua were elliptical in shape and larger than the circular shaped P. gossypiella spiracular orifices. Spiracular orifice surface areas of T. ni pupae were larger than S. exigua surface areas and those of S. exigua were larger than those of P. gossypiella. The results suggest a partial explanation for the lack of susceptibility of P. gossypiella pupae to nematode infection.
26. CONTROL-LAB: Nicolas-B; Epsky-ND; Capinera-JL. 1995. Susceptibility of Melanoplus sanguinipes (Orthoptera: Acrididae) nymphs to Steinernema carpocapsae and S. scapterisci (Nematoda: Steinernematidae). Environmental-Entomology. 1995, 24: 3, 762-769.
AB: Infective juveniles of Steinernema carpocapsae and S. scapterisci infected nymphs of Melanoplus sanguinipes under Petri dish and simulated field conditions. S. carpocapsae caused higher mortality and was more infective (number of nematodes gaining entry to host) than S. scapterisci. Rate of mortality did not vary significantly among the nymphal instars, but nematodes were more infective in larger nymphs. For hatching grasshoppers digging to the soil surface, mortality and infectivity were positively correlated with soil moisture levels. Pathogenicity was especially enhanced by high humidity at the soil surface. Three sandy soils were also evaluated for effect on mortality and infectivity, but the influence of soil type, while significant, was small relative to soil moisture.
27. CONTROL-LAB: Shamseldean-MM; Abd-Elgawad-MM. 1995. Survival and infectivity of entomopathogenic nematodes under environmental stress. Anzeiger-fur-Schadlingskunde,-Pflanzenschutz,-Umweltschutz. 1995, 68: 2, 31-33.
AB: In 2 experiments in Egypt, infective-stage juveniles of 3 heterohabditid nematode isolates and Steinernema riobravis were placed in sterilized sandy soil in sealed containers buried in a maize field during summer. Containers were removed daily for 10 consequent days and surviving juveniles were recovered from the soil by the Baermann funnel method, then the remainder of soil was subjected to the Spodoptera littoralis baiting technique. Apparently, the low level of soil moisture (3%) and ceiling temperature levels (up to 420C), as well as the faint electric conductivity (0.48 mmhos/cm) of the soil containing the nematodes resulted in a rapid decline in the number of nematodes recoverable from the soil over time by the Baermann method. The percentage recovery for the nematode isolates EAM8, EIS7 and EAS59 by the Baermann funnel was 35.6, 43.9 and 20.5 for the total nematodes recovered in the first trial, resp. The nematode numbers increased when the recovery time was extended from 24 to 48 h at 230C.Insignificant differences were found between nematode numbers recovered daily in both trials. The average number of the recovered S. riobravis was more (P =0.05) than that of any other nematode isolate. Nematodes which were not recoverable by the Baermann technique were infective when bioassayed over the period of the 2 experiments. The infective juveniles which survived the stressed conditions are recommended to be subcultured by a selection regime in order to obtain an improved nematode strain.
28. CONTROL_LAB: Shannag-HK; Capinera-JL. 1995. Evaluation of entomopathogenic nematode species for the control of melonworm (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Environmental-Entomology. 1995, 24: 1, 143-148.
AB: Laboratory bioassays were conducted to determine pathogenicity of 5 entomopathogenic nematodes from the genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis against Diaphania hyalinata. S. carpocapsae (Mexican strain) was the most pathogenic nematode species, followed by H.bacteriophora, S. feltiae, S. anomali and S. glaseri, resp. The LC50 for S. carpocapsae (Mexican) was 39.9 infective juveniles/ml. The rate of nematode invasion into insects was proportional to the overall pathogenic effect of the various nematodes. Insect mortality and infectivity (the number of nematodes invading the insect) were directly related to exposure time. First-instar larvae and pupae were significantly less susceptible to S. carpocapsae infection than older larvae and prepupae. The number of nematodes found in the haemocoel increased with larval age. Mortality and infectivity were inversely related to nematode size. In field trials in Florida in 1993, survival of S. carpocapsae (All strain) on squash plant foliage was reduced to 0.77% within 40 h in a trial under high humidity conditions and to 0.25% after 18 h in a trial under moderate humidity conditions. Field applications of 5 billion nematodes per hectare produced infection rates of 52-55%.
29. CONTROL_LAB: Shannag Henneberry-TJ; Lindegren-JE; Jech-LF; Burke-RA. 1995. Pink bollworm (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae): effect of Steinernematid nematodes on larval mortality. Southwestern-Entomologist. 1995, 20: 1, 25-32.
AB: Second-, 3rd- and last-instar larvae of Pectinophora gossypiella were susceptible to infection by infective juvenile nematodes, Steinernema riobravis, and the Kapow nematode strain of S. carpocapsae. Third- and last-instar larvae were more susceptible than 2nd-instar larvae. The LC50 (1.84) for last-instar larvae treated with S. riobravis was significantly lower than the LC50 (3.07) for larvae with S. carpocapsae. S. riobravis; induced higher percentages of larval mortality than S. carpocapsae in bioassay containers with 10, 50 or 100 nematodes per 10 larvae and in each case at densities of 1, 5 and 10 larvae per bioassay container. Small percentages (4-23) of larvae were found containing infective juvenile nematodes after 1 h exposure to either species.
30. CONTROL-LAB: Vega-FE; Dowd-PF; Nelsen-TC. 1994. Susceptibility of dried fruit beetles (Carpophilus hemipterus L.; Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) to different STEINERNEMA species (Nematoda: Rhabditida: Steinernematidae). Journal-of-Invertebrate-Pathology. 1994, 64: 3, 276-277.
AB: The susceptibility of Carpophilus hemipterus to Steinernema carpocapsae, S. feltiae, S. glaseri and S. riobravis was investigated in the laboratory. All species caused insect mortality at all concn tested (25, 50, 100, 200 and 400 infective juveniles (IJ)/larva) S. riobravis was the most effective, causing 80 and 88% mortality at 200 and 400 IJ/larva, resp.
31. CONTROL-LAB: Wilson-MJ; Glen-DM; Hughes-LA; Pearce-JD; Rodgers-PB. 1994. Laboratory tests of the potential of entomopathogenic nematodes for the control of field slugs (Deroceras reticulatum). Journal-of-Invertebrate-Pathology. 1994, 64: 3, 182-187.
AB: The entomopathogenic nematodes, Steinernema feltiae (UK76) and Heterorhabditis sp. (North West European Group, UK 211), and the slug-parasitic nematode Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita (UK 1) were tested for their ability to kill Deroceras reticulatum using petri dish and soil bioassays. The entomopathogenic nematodes did not kill slugs in either bioassay at 14 and 230C, although they were shown to kill tenebrionid insect larvae (Tenebrio molitor and Zophobas sp.) at 14°C. The symbiotic bacteria of S. feltiae and Heterorhabditis sp. (Xenorhabdus bovienii and Photorhabdus luminescens, resp.) were injected in large numbers into the haemocoel of D. reticulatum. X. bovienii was found to be of low pathogenicity and P. luminescens was not pathogenic, whereas slugs were rapidly killed by injection of a strain of Pseudomonas fluorescens isolated from a cadaver of D. reticulatum. P. hermaphrodita killed D. reticulatum at 140C but not at 230C and did not kill T. molitor or Z. morio at 140C. It is concluded that S. feltiae and Heterorhabditis sp. have no potential as biocontrol agents against slugs, whereas P. hermaphrodita is effective at the relatively low temperatures at which slugs are active.
32. CONTROL-GREENHOUSE Carrano-Moreira-AF; All-J. 1995. Screening of bioinsecticides against the cotton bollworm on cotton. Pesquisa-Agropecuaria-Brasileira. 1995, 30: 3, 307-312.
AB: Four bioinsecticides and a synthetic pyrethroid were evaluated against Heliothis zea [Helicoverpa zea] in the laboratory. Treatments were: cypermethrin; Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki; Steinernema feltiae; nuclear polyhedrosis virus; Beauveria bassiana (Bals) and an untreated check, applied over 2.8 cm2 cotton leaf discs in 3 concn. Mortality rate was *ed 1, 2, 7 and 9 days after treatment. The efficiency of the bioinsecticides was also tested in a greenhouse. Treatments were the same but instead of the virus an experimental formulation of B. thuringiensis (Mycogen) was used. Each treatment consisted of 4 plants (Coker 310) sprayed with insecticide and infested with 9 neonate larva. Results were evaluated 7 days after treatment. In the laboratory, cypermethrin and B. thuringiensis were significantly different from the untreated control at day 1, despite concentrations. They did not differ statistically from each other. S. feltiae showed a significant higher mortality rate than the control after day 2. The virus was highly effective between 2 and 7 days after treatment, killing all larvae. In the greenhouse, cypermethrin was significantly more effective than no treatment.
33. CONTROL-GREENHOUSE: Broadbent-AB; Olthof-THA. 1995. Foliar application of Steinernema carpocapsae (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) to control Liriomyza trifolii (Diptera: Agromyzidae) larvae in chrysanthemums. Environmental-Entomology. 1995, 24: 2, 431-435.
AB: Foliar sprays of Steinernema carpocapsae All strain (10 000 infective juveniles/ml) on chrysanthemums ('Manatee Iceberg') effectively controlled 2nd-instar larvae of Liriomyza trifolii (>85% mortality), in laboratory tests, under conditions of high humidity in plastic cages. Increasing the duration of caging chrysanthemums gave consistently higher mortality of the pest. Free moisture on the leaf surface and increased humidity enhanced the survival and activity of entomopathogenic nematodes. Glycerine was the most effective adjuvant tested for increasing the mortality of L. trifolii caused by nematodes. Wilt Pruf, Folicote and Sunspray Ultrafine Spray oil were ineffective adjuvants. A research greenhouse test using 2 consecutive applications of S. carpocapsae (3 and 4 days after oviposition by L. trifolii) gave >80% mortality of the pest with or without glycerine. Abamectin gave significantly greater mortality (99.6%) than any nematode treatment.
34. CONTROL-GREENHOUSE: Belair-G; Boivin-G. 1995. Evaluation of Steinernema carpocapsae Weiser for control of carrot weevil adults, Listronotus oregonensis (LeConte) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), in organically grown carrots. Biocontrol-Science-and-Technology. 1995, 5: 2, 225-231.
AB: In greenhouse pot experiments and in field trials at Sainte-Clotilde, Quebec, Canada, during 1989-90, application of Steinernema carpocapsae using a baiting method consistently reduced the oviposition of adults of Listronotus oregonensis at all moisture regimens. At 80 and 95% RH soil applications at 104 infective juveniles (IJs)/ cm2 and 105 infective stages (400 IJs/cm2) per pot reduced the survival and oviposition of L. oregonensis. Soil applications were ineffective at RH <80%. When timed correctly, soil application at the rate of 2X105 IJs/linear m of row (4.4X109 IJs/ha) reduced damage in the carrot cv. Gold Pak 26 by up to 59%.
35. ITALY- EVALUATION
Locatelli-DP; Parleaz-E 1987. Laboratory evaluation of the activity of Steinernema spp. and Heterorhabditis spp. on Blattella germanica (L.). La-Difesa-delle-Piante. 1987, 10: 2, 339-348; 9 ref.

Inst. Entomologia. Agraria, Univ. Milan, Italy.
AB: Laboratory tests showed that 100% mortality was obtained with Steinernema feltiae [Neoaplectona carpocapsae] (strains "1 0", "All", "1 100", "1 160", "1 165") and Heterorhabditis spp. ("1 23H", "HW") by direct contact of 500 or more nematodes on males of B. germanica. N. carpocapsae ("1 45", "1 95"), S. bibionis [N. bibionis ] ("Bib"), H. heliothidis ("HH") and Heterorhabditis spp. ("1 127") were less satisfactory although all achieved at least 80% mortality at inoculum levels of 1000 nematodes. In trials carried out by ingestion employing a small sponge soaked in nematodes, N. carpocapsae was most successful with 100% mortality at levels of 5000 nematodes for 5 strains. All other strains achieved 40-80% mortality.
36. USA- LEPTINOTARSA
Wright-RJ; Agudelo-Silva-F; Georgis-R 1987

Soil applications of steinernematid and heterorhabditid nematodes for control of Colorado potato beetles, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say). Journal-of-Nematology. 19: 2, 201-206; 20 ref.
Dep. Entomol., Cornell Univ., Long Island Hort. Res. Lab., 39 Sound Ave., Riverhead, NY 11901, USA.
AB: Steinernema feltiae (All, Mexican, and Breton strains) [Neoaplectana carpocapsae] and Heterorhabditis heliothidis were evaluated for their potential to control Colorado potato beetle (CPB), L. decemlineata, larvae and pupae in the soil. In laboratory studies, H. heliothidis and S. feltiae (Mexican strain) produced the highest mortality (6 days posttreatment) of CPB when applied to the surface of a soil column containing mature CPB larvae 5 cm below the surface. Mortality ranged from 80 to 90% at rates of 79-158 nematodes/cm2. Similar results were seen in a field microplot study with all 4 nematodes; S. feltiae (Mexican strain) and H. heliothidis were most effective. Adult CPB emergence was reduced by 86.5-100% after application of 31-93 H. heliothidis/cm2 and by 88.4-100% after application of 93-155 S. feltiae (Mexican strain)/cm2. The All strain of S. feltiae was moderately effective (ca. 80% reduction at 93-155 nematodes/cm2), while the Breton strain was ineffective (< 40% reduction at 155 nematodes/cm2). In small plots of potatoes enclosed in field cages, application of H. heliothidis and S. feltiae (Mexican strain) at rates of 93-155 nematodes/cm2, before larval CPB burial in the soil, resulted in 66-77% reduction in adult CPB emergence. Soil applications of these nematodes show potential for biological control of CPB.
37. USA- CROWN BORER
Capinera-JL; Cranshaw-WS; Hughes-HG
Suppression of raspberry crown borer, Pennisetia marginata (Harris) (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) with soil applications of Steinernema feltiae (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae). Journal-of-Invertebrate-Pathology. 1986, 48: 2, 257-258; 8 ref. Dep. Entomology, Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
AB: During field trials in Colorado in 1985, suspensions of Steinernema feltiae [Neoaplectana feltiae] were applied at a rate of 60 000 nematodes/plant in 150 ml water to the base of raspberry clumps for the control of Pennisetia marginata. Three days after treatment, 67% of larvae were infected with the nematode, as compared with 33% after 5 days. The numbers of the pest recovered were lower than expected with regard to the level of plant mortality observed.
38.ITALY-ZEZUERA
Deseo-KV; Docci-R 1985
Microbiological control against Zeuzera pyrina L. (Lepidoptera: Cossidae).
Difesa-delle-Piante. 1985, 8:2, 285-291; in Atti del Convegno 'La Lotta Biologica', Torino, 16 febbraio 1985; 10 ref. Cent. Studio per gli Antiparassitari, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Bologna, Italy.
AB: Zeuzera pyrina is an important pest of apple, pear and poplar [Populus] in Italy. Adult emergence and oviposition last from May to September. Since chemical control of the young larvae is not feasible during the fruit harvest, the possibility of biological control by means of the nematodes Steinernema bibionis [Neoaplectana bibionis], S. feltiae [N. feltiae] and Heterorhabditis sp. was investigated in several apple orchards. Suspensions containing the nematodes were either applied by means of a motor sprayer at the rate of 1X106 nematodes/tree or used to soak cotton buds that were inserted into the entrance holes of larval galleries in the trees. The 1st method resulted in 70-100 mortality of the cossid and the 2nd in 90-95%. The infection rate was lower (60-70%) in trees heavily infested with Z. pyrina than in trees with less than 5 larvae each (84-100%). Cotton buds were also soaked in suspensions of the fungi Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae (at the rate of 1 g/litre water) or of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (as liquid Bactospeine diluted to 50%) and gave 95-99% larval mortality of Z. pyrina in the galleries.
39.ITALY-LIRIOMYZA
Colombo-M; Locatelli-DP 1985
Laboratory evaluation of the activity of Steinernema feltiae Filip. and Heterorhabditis spp. on Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) and Opogona sacchari (Bojer) infesting cultivated flowering plants. Difesa-delle-Piante. 1985, 8: 2, 263-269; in Atti del Convegno 'La Lotta Biologica', Torino, 16 febbraio 1985; 12 ref Istituto di Entomologia Agraria, Univ. Milano, Milan, Italy.
AB: The activity of 6 strains of Steinernema feltiae [Neoaplectana feltiae], 2 strains of Heterorhabditis spp. and 1 strain of H. heliothidis were tested in the laboratory in Italy against the agromyzid Liriomyza trifolii and the hieroxestid Opogona sacchari infesting ornamental flowering plants grown in the greenhouse. N. feltiae appeared more active than any of the Heterorhabditis species. Against O. sacchari, the strains 0, 100 and All of N. feltiae applied in suspensions at the rate 100 nematodes/cm2(and strain 100 also at 50 nematodes/cm2) gave 100% larval mortality, and the less active strain 165 gave 80% kill; the most active Heterorhabditis strain, 23H, at the highest concentration, gave 86% kill of O. sacchari. Against L. trifolii, the highest mortality obtained from any of the nematodes was 76% (from strain 0 of N. feltiae), and this lower efficiency was attributed to the short time (24 h) spent outside the leaf mine by the larvae of this agromyzid. Biological control by means of pathogenic nematodes is therefore a less practical proposition for L. trifolii than for O. sacchari.
40. USA-BT+NEM
Bari-MA; Kaya-HK 1984
Evaluation of the entomogenous nematode Neoaplectana carpocapsae (=Steinernema feltiae) Weiser (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) and the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner var. kurstaki for suppression of the artichoke plume moth (Lepidoptera: Pterophoridae). Journal-of-Economic-Entomology. 1984, 77: 1, 225-229; 12 ref. Artichoke Research Association, US Agricultural Research Station, PO Box 5098, Salinas, California 93915, USA.
AB: The effectiveness of sprays of the nematode Steinernema feltiae (Neoaplectana carpocapsae) and the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki for the suppression of Platyptilia carduidactyla (Ril.) infesting globe artichoke in its vegetative growth phase was evaluated in field tests in California in 1981-82. In general, nematode concentrations 1000/ml were highly effective against older larvae when applied to plants to runoff. At 2000/ml, the nematode gave 100% control of 3rd- and 4th-instar larvae 15 days after treatment, and its residual effect (at 24 days after treatment) was greater than that of the commonly used insecticide methidathion. Although B. t. kurstaki used at a rate of 19.6 billion IUs/ha gave significant larval control, its efficacy was not significantly lower than that of methidathion. Combination of the nematode and bacterium did not result in significantly greater control than that achieved by the nematode alone. The moist microhabitat and moderate temperatures during most of the artichoke-growing season in the fog-belt region of the central coast of California, together with the tunnelling habit of the host larvae, indicated that the nematode could successfully be used as a biological control agent of larvae infesting the vegetative shoots.
41. USA-LABTEST
Beavers-JB; Calkins-CO1984
Susceptibility of Anastrepha suspensa (Diptera: Tephritidae) to steinernematid and heterorhabditid nematodes in laboratory studies. Environmental-Entomology. 1984, 13: 1, 137-139; 11 ref. US Horticultural Research Laboratory, ARS, USDA, Orlando, Florida 32803, USA.
AB: Significantly more larvae and adults of the fruit fly Anastrepha suspensa (Lw.) were infected and killed by the entomogenous nematodes Steinernema feltiae, Heterorhabditis heliothidis and H. bacteriophora than by S. glaseri in laboratory studies in Florida. Pupae were less susceptible to infection. The nematodes multiplied in the host cadavers and began leaving the parasitised hosts within 7 days. The infective-stage nematodes collected from tephritid hosts were infectious to fresh examples of A. suspensa and to larvae of Galleria mellonella (L.).
42. USA-ROOT WEEVIL
Georgis-R; Poinar-GO Jr. 1984
Field control of the strawberry root weevil, Nemocestes incomptus, by neoaplectanid nematodes (Steinernematidae: Nematoda). Journal-of-Invertebrate-Pathology. 1984, 43: 1, 130-131; 4 ref. Division of Entomology and Parasitology, California University, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
AB: In field studies in Watsonville, California, in 1982, application of a 1:1 mixture of the Breton strain of Steinernema feltiae (Neoaplectana carpocapsae) and S. glaseri (N. glaseri) at a rate of 5 X 106 infective juveniles/10-m row to the soil surface around 2-year-old raspberry plants heavily infested with the curculionid Nemocestes incomptus (Horn) gave 64.6% mortality of the weevil larvae 9 days after application and 18.2 and 25% infection of weevil pupae and adults, respectively, after 16 days. The results showed that the nematodes could seek out and kill their insect hosts in the soil.
43. USA-VESPULA
Gambino-P1984.
Susceptibility of the Western yellowjacket Vespula pensylvanica to three species of entomogenous nematodes. IRCS-Medical-Science:-Microbiology,-Parasitology-and-Infectious-Diseases. 1984, 12: 3-4, 264; 3 Entomol. Dep. Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.
AB: Groups of 10 full grown larvae of V. pensylvanica were removed from their combs and placed in Petri dishes. About 2000 3rd-stage infective juveniles of one of 3 nematode species in 2 ml of water were added to each dish. Within 2 days the yellowjacket mortality was 100% in those exposed to Neoaplectana carpocapsae (Italian strain), 100% in those exposed to Neoaplectana sp. (Hopland strain) and 98% in those exposed to Heterorhabditis bacteriophora. All 3 nematode species were able to reproduce inside the wasp hosts, and preliminary tests indicated that the 3 can also kill and reproduce in V. vulgaris.
44. Lozzia-GC 1983 Otiorrhynchus sulcatus in cultivated flowers of the Lake Maggiore region. Informatore-Fitopatologico. 1983, 33: 7-8, 15-19; 8 col. fig.; 6 ref.
AB: Information is given on the biology and control of Otiorhynchus sulcatus (F.), which severely damages rhododendrons, azaleas and camellias in the Lago Maggiore district of Italy, the larvae attacking the collar and roots and the adults the leaves. The weevil had 1 generation a year in the study area, but development times varied greatly with temperature and were different in field and greenhouse crops. In the field, eggs were present from mid-April to early June, larvae from late May to early October, pupae from late September to the end of November and adults (which overwintered) from the beginning of November to mid-April. The main larval damage occurred in the summer in the field and in the winter in the greenhouse. Chemical control with granular and liquid formulations of several insecticides was not very successful, but a preparation of peat containing the nematode Steinernema feltiae (Neoaplectana carpocapsae) gave 80-90% reduction of adult emergence.
45. USA- LEPTINITARSA DECEMLINEATA
Toba-HH; Lindegren-JE; Turner-JE; Vail-PV1983
Susceptibility of the Colorado potato beetle and the sugarbeet wireworm to Steinernema feltiae and S. glaseri. Journal-of-Nematology. 1983, 15: 4, 597-601; 15 ref Yakima Agric. Res. Lab., USDA, ARS, Yakima, WA 98902, USA.
AB: In laboratory tests, larvae of Leptinotarsa decemlineata and Limonius californicus were exposed to S. feltiae (= Neoaplectana carpocapsae) and S. glaseri in soil. S. feltiae caused significantly higher mortality in L. californicus larvae than did S. glaseri but both nematodes were equally effective against Leptinotarsa decemlineata larvae. The minimum concentration of S. feltiae for 100% mortality of L. decemlineata larvae after 13 days was 157 nematodes/cm2 soil and the LC50)> based on 6-day mortality was 47.5 nematodes/cm2; 100% mortality of Limonius californicus larvae was not achieved with the highest concentration tested (393 nematodes/cm2). In field tests, S. feltiae applied to the soil surface at the rates of 155 and 310 nematodes/cm2 soil caused 59% and 71% mortality respectively of late 4th-instar spring generation Leptinotarsa decemlineata and 28% and 29% mortality respectively of Limonius californicus. No infection was obtained following reinfestation with summer-generation larvae.
46. USA-HELIOTHIS
Bong-CFJ; Sikorowski-PP. 1983.
Use of the DD 136 strain of Neoaplectana carpocapsae Weiser (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) for control of corn earworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Journal-of-Economic-Entomology. 1983, 76: 3, 590-593; 1 fig.; 20 ref.
Department of Entomology, Mississippi State University, MS 39762, USA.
AB: Field-plot tests were carried out in Mississippi in the summer of 1981 to determine the effectiveness of the DD 136 strain of the nematode Steinernema feltiae (Neoaplectana carpocapsae) in controlling larvae of Heliothis zea (Boddie) on maize. Ears were artificially infested with H. zea larvae and subsequently sprayed with nematodes at concentrations of 0, 4 X 103 and 4 X 104 nematodes/ml suspension. Treatment at the highest concentration gave 88% control in early June but only 80% in late June and 58% in early July. The results indicated, therefore, that S. feltiae survived better and was more effective in the early part of the season. All ears in the treated and control plots received some damage, but damage in all the treated plots was significantly lower than that in the control.
47. USA- BUDWORM
Kaya-HK; Reardon-RC 1982
Evaluation of Neoaplectana carpocapsae for biological control of the western spruce budworm, Choristoneura occidentalis: ineffectiveness and persistence of tank mixes. Journal-of-Nematology. 1982, 14: 4, 595-597; 12 ref. Division of Nematology, California University, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
AB: The effects of various spray additives to suspensions of Steinernema feltiae (Neoaplectana carpocapsae) on the persistence of the nematode against Choristoneura occidentalis Freeman on grand fir (Abies grandis) were studied in the USA. None of the additives tested (a methylcellulose polymer (Methocel), a water-absorbent polymer (Norbak) and a drift-control agent for herbicides (Nalco-trol)) resulted in significant nematode infections of the host insect, although Norbak and Methocel extended nematode survival on foliage. Nematode survival was also increased on bagged as compared with unbagged foliage. Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki (Dipel) was tested for comparison at a rate of 1 X 109 IUs/tree and resulted in a population reduction of 83% on bagged branches and 74% on unbagged ones.
48. USA- CAT FLEA
Silverman-J; Platzer-EG; Rust-MK, 1982.
Infection of the cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis (Bouche) by Neoaplectana carpocapsae Weiser. Journal-of-Nematology. 1982, 14: 3, 394-397; 1 fig.; 11 ref. Department of Entomology, California University, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
AB: Larvae of Ctenocephalides felis (Bch.) were infected with the entomophilic nematode Steinernema feltiae (Neoaplectana carpocapsae) in the laboratory in the USA. Fleas have not previously been reported as hosts of the nematode, which infects many other species of insects. The Breton strain of S. feltiae provided higher larval mortality at lower dosages than did the DD-136 strain. Adult nematodes were evident in the insect haemocoel after 48 h. However, no infective 3rd-stage larvae were produced. Larval flea infection increased with an increase in the moisture content of sand from 2 to 7% and of sandy clay from 7 to 12%. Larval flea infection was also obtained on turf containing dauer larvae. Nematodes penetrated the cocoons, invading prepupae and pupae.
49.USA-FIELD EFFICACY
Koppenhofer-AM; Choo-HY; Kaya-HK; Lee-DW; Gelernter-WD
Increased field and greenhouse efficacy against scarab grubs with a combination of an entomopathogenic nematode and Bacillus thuringiensis. Biological-Control. 1999, 14: 1, 37-44; 14 ref.: Department of Nematology, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616-8668, USA
AB: In previous laboratory studies, entomopathogenic nematodes and B. thuringiensis subspecies japonensis (Btj) caused additive or synergistic mortality in 3rd-instar Cyclocephala (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) grubs when the nematodes were applied at least 7 days after Btj. This type of mortality was observed for C. hirta, a species that is not very susceptible to Btj, and for C. pasadenae, a species that has intermediate susceptibility to Btj. In the present study, this observation was confirmed for third-instar Anomala orientalis, a species that is highly susceptible to Btj. In greenhouse and field studies, additive or synergistic interactions between nematodes (Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and Steinernema glaseri) and Btj were observed for all 3 scarab species. The interactions were variable, and to achieve acceptable grub control, high concentrations of Btj had to be applied. A subsequent greenhouse experiment showed that young third instar C. pasadenae were more susceptible to Btj than older third instars. In addition the interaction between nematodes and Btj was also more synergistic in the younger than in the older third instars. In a field test against a population of C. hirta consisting of late second and early third instars, combinations of nematodes and Btj at economic application rates provided acceptable control levels whether applied simultaneously or with a 4-day delay between Btj and nematode application. These observations suggested that curative control of white grubs is possible with combinations of entomopathogenic nematodes and Btj if the applications are done when populations consist of second and early third instars.
50.USA- CODLING MOTH CONTROL
Lacey-LA; Chauvin-RL1999
Entomopathogenic nematodes for control of diapausing codling moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in fruit bins. Journal-of-Economic-Entomology. 1999, 92: 1, 104-109; 32 ref.
Yakima Agricultural Research Laboratory, USDA-ARS, 5230 Konnowac Pass Road, Wapato, WA 98951, USA.
AB: Fruit bins infested with diapausing larvae of codling moth larvae, Cydia pomonella, are a source of reinfestation of orchards and may jeopardize the success of mating disruption programs and other control strategies. Bins are not routinely treated for control of overwintering codling moth before placing them in orchards. Entomopathogenic nematodes provide a noninsecticidal alternative to methyl bromide that could be applied at the time bins are submerged in dump tanks at the packing house for flotation of fruit. Diapausing codling moth larvae in miniature fruit bins were highly susceptible to infective juveniles of Steinernema carpocapsae. Immersion of bins in suspensions of S. carpocapsae ranging from 5 to 100 infective juveniles per ml of water resulted in 68-100% mortality. Immersion times of 1 or 5 min in suspensions with 5 infective juveniles of S. carpocapsae per ml of water, with and without Tween 80 (0.01%), yielded essentially the same mortality of codling moth larvae. Highest mortalities in codling moth larvae (88%) after treatment of bins in suspensions of 5 infective juveniles of S. carpocapsae per ml of water were observed after incubation for 24 h at 25°C and 70% RH. Lowest mortalities (37%) were observed after incubation at 15°C and 35% RH. Comparative tests conducted with Heterorhabditis marelatus, Steinernema kraussei and S. carpocapsae with 5 infective juveniles per ml of water resulted in 21.7, 53.9, and 68.7% mortality, respectively. The use of miniature fruit bins as described in this article provides an effective means of assessing nematode efficacy without the cumbersome size of commercial bins.
51. USA-CODLING MOTH CONTROL
Lacey-LA; Unruh-TR1998.
Entomopathogenic nematodes for control of codling moth, Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae): effect of nematode species, concentration, temperature, and humidity. Biological-Control. 1998, 13: 3, 190-197; 42 ref. Yakima Agricultural Research Laboratory, USDA-ARS, 5230 Konnowac Pass Road, Wapato, WA 98951, .
AB: Infective juveniles of Steinernema carpocapsae, S. riobravae [S. riobrave] and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora were evaluated for their effectiveness in controlling diapausing and non-diapausing larvae of Cydia pomonella under a variety of environmental conditions in the laboratory and simulated field conditions. The following were investigated: effect of nematode species and infective juvenile concentration; effect of temperature on infectivity; and effect of humidity on infectivity. Infective juveniles were evaluated against non-diapausing cocooned codling moth larvae under simulated field conditions on pear (Bartlett) and apple (Golden Delicious) sectioned tree trunks. The results indicated the good potential of entomopathogenic nematodes, especially S. carpocapsae, for codling moth control under a variety of environmental conditions.
52. SPAIN-EFFECTIVENESS
Vela-JRG; Lara-MP; Lobaton-CS; Roca-AC 1998.
Effectiveness of entomopathogenic nematodes on Heliothis armigera (Hubner) (Lep.: Noctuidae) larvae in laboratory. Boletin-de-Sanidad-Vegetal,-Plagas. 1998, 24: 4, 849-852; 7 ref. Efectividad de nematodos entomopatogenicos sobre larvas de Heliothis armigera (Hubner) (Lep: Noctuidae) en laboratorio.
Rhone-Poulenc Agro S.U., Centro de Investigacion Agricola Torre de la Reina, 41209 Torre de la Reina, Sevilla, Spain.
AB: The effectiveness of entomopathogenic nematodes of the genus Stienernema on Heliothis armiger larvae was evaluated in the laboratory. In addition, techniques for the laboratory rearing of H. armigera are described. The results showed high susceptibility of the larvae (100% mortality) for this entomopathogenic nematode.
53. VENZUELA-CONTROL COSMOPOLITIS
Rosales-A-LC; Suarez-H-Z
Entomopathogenic nematodes as possible control agents of the banana root borer weevil Cosmopolites sordidus (Germar) 1824 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Boletin-de-Entomologia-Venezolana,-Serie-Monografias. 1998, 13: 2, 123-140; 37 ref. Nematodos entomopatogenos como posibles agentes de control del gorgojo negro del platano Cosmopolites sordidus (Germar 1824) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Departamento de Proteccion Vegetal, Laboratorio de Nematologia, Apdo. 4653, Maracay 2101, Aragua, Venezuela.
AB: A survey of entomopathogenic nematodes found in Aragua and Miranda States (Venezuela) was carried out, and their potential as biological control agents of C. sordidus evaluated. Foreign strains, including Heterorhabditis bacteriophora (FRG-1 and HT1), H. indicus (FRG-09 and FRG-15), Steinernema bibionis and S. carpocapsae, and the Venezuelan Heterorhabditis spp. strains HV1, HV2, HV3, HV4, HV5 and HV6, were compared. HV3 and HV6 strains of H. indicus were recorded for the first time from Venezuela. A mortality range of 16-80% was observed in evaluations of strains on C. sordidus adults. Six Heterorhabditis spp. and 1 Steinernema sp. displayed relatively high levels of pathogenicity against C. sordidus. Mortality tended to increase with time. Some Venezuelan strains efficiently controlled C. sordidus and are concluded to have good potential as biological control agents.
54. NETHERLANDS-MUSHROOMS
Scheepmaker-JWA; Geels-FP; Griensven-LJLD-van; Smits-PH; van-Griensven-LJLD 1998
Susceptibility of larvae of the mushroom fly Megaselia halterata to the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae in bioassays. BioControl. 1998, 43: 2, 201-214; 47 ref.DLO-Research Institute for Plant Protection (IPO-DLO), P.O.B. 9060, 6700 GW Wageningen, Netherlands.
AB: Bioassays were initially conducted in Petri dishes to screen the efficacy of four Heterorhabditis and Steinernema species against the mushroom phorid Megaselia halterata. Control rates of 61-70% were obtained at 1500 infective juveniles (IJs) per 30 larvae. In order to avoid stress-induced susceptibility, an improved bioassay system in micro-wells, filled with 0.6 ml of compost agar and 0.2 ml of compost colonized by Agaricus bisporus, was developed. In a screening of different species of Heterorhabditis and Steinernema with applications of 30 IJs per phorid larva, a highest parasitization rate of 20% was obtained with S. feltiae. Bioassays were continued with S. feltiae in dosage-mortality assays in which larvae of the sciarid Lycoriella auripila and the phorid M. halterata were challenged. At the lowest dosage of 30 IJs per sciarid larva, 78% control was obtained. Increasing the dosage from 30 to 1000 led to only small increases of in phorid mortality. At 1000 IJs per larva a significant mortality of 18% was obtained. The nature of the substrate, compost or casing did not greatly influence the parasitization rates. The sex ratio of nematodes that were able to penetrate and establish in phorid larvae appeared to be female-skewed. Males were only present at a mean of 19%. The low susceptibility of phorid larvae was ascribed to the inaccessibility of its small mouth opening.
55. Management of late-season adults of the Colorado potato beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) with entomopathogenic nematodes.
Stewart-JG; Boiteau-G; Kimpinski-J
Canadian-Entomologist. 1998, 130: 4, 509-514; 10 ref.

The susceptibility of Leptinotarsa decemlineata to entomophilic nematodes (Steinernema carpocapsae, 'All' strain) was tested in the laboratory at 18-210C and on potatoes in the field in New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island in 1992 and 1993. Under laboratory conditions, applications of 5.0 X 105 S. carpocapsae/m2 to larvae, pupae, and/or adults resulted in 100% mortality. S. carpocapsae persisted through the larval-pupal and pupal-adult transitions. A single application of nematodes was sufficient to control L. decemlineata. The following treatments were tested at field sites in New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island: no treatment; application of nematodes; and fenvalerate at 0.1 kg a.i./ha. Straw mulch was either present or absent in each treatment. In 1992 in New Brunswick, nematodes and fenvalerate reduced L. decemlineata populations by 31% compared with no treatment. However, in 1993, differences among treatments were not significant. The results from the field trials in Prince Edward Island were variable; the life expectancy of nematodes is probably shorter in the field than under laboratory conditions.
56. USA - PICKLEWORM: Management of pickleworm with entomopathogenic nematodes.
Webb-SE; Capinera-JL
Proceedings-of-the-Florida-State-Horticultural-Society. 1995, publ. 1996, No. 108, 242-245; 9 ref.

Steinernema carpocapsae, All strain were tested for efficacy in controlling pickleworm, Diaphania nitidalis, an important pest of cucurbits in Florida. In 1992, nematodes were applied to squash (Cucurbita pepo) twice per week, at a rate of 3 billion nematodes per acre. The percentage of fruit damaged by pickleworm in these plots ranged from 0% on 19 June to a high of 9% on 26 June. Damage in untreated plots ranged from a low of 33% on 16 June to a high of 60% on 12 June. Blossom damage was also significantly reduced with application of nematodes. In 1993, a much lower rate of nematodes was applied once per week (one billion nematodes per acre). Even at this low rate, nematodes were as effective as permethrin, although neither treatment was completely effective when pickleworms were abundant. More frequent applications may be necessary to achieve control with a reduced rate of nematodes.
57.
TI: Entomopathogenic nematodes against the sugarbeet weevil (Temnorhinus mendicus Gyll., Coleoptera, Curculionidae).
OT: Nematodi entomopatogeni nella lotta contro il cleono della barbabietola da zucchero.
AU: Tacconi-R; Boselli-M; Curto-GM; Santi-R 1998
AD: Regione Emilia-Romagna, Servizio Fitosanitario, Bologna, Italy.
SO: Notiziario-sulla-Protezione-delle-Piante. 1998, No. 8, 213-218; 4 ref.

AB: Since 1991 several trials have been carried out in order to evaluate the possibility of protecting crops against Temnorhinus mendicus [Conorhynchus mendicus], by using commercial formulations based on entomophilic nematodes (EPN). After some positive results, trials have continued in order to determine the most effective dose, the time and the techniques of application. Further results showed that the weevil is sensitive to all strains of EPN used in the trials (Heterorhabditis sp., H. bacteriophora, Steinernema carpocapsae). Only one treatment at the emergence of weevil larvae, between the end of May and the first half of June, was sufficient to control the pest. The most efficient dose of application was 250 000 infective juveniles/m2, applied with equipment generally used for applying liquid insecticides. Irrigation of the crop (10 mm) after the treatment is important for the nematodes to reach the host. The parasitization of weevil larvae was 40-80%. EPN treatments proved to be very effective to control larval insect infestation on sugarbeet roots (45-90%). The biological control with EPN against T. mendicus represents a very effective alternative to chemical treatments in the integrated pest management of sugarbeet crops. However, the large-scale application of EPN will only be possible if the price of this biological insecticide becomes competitive or at least comparable to chemicals.
58. CHINA-WHITE GRUB-FOREST
Study of using entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria brongniartii to control white grubs in forest nursery.
AU: Li-LanZhen; Zhou-XinSheng; Cui-YongSan; Yan-Jun; Yang-HongPing; Song-YouFa; Yang-YanLong; Wang-GuiLin; Wang-FengYing; Yu-XiHu; Guan-Sheng; Yan-ZhiGang; Yang-GuiZhen; Liang-Ping; Wang-YuZhou; Yan-JiChun; Shang-DeFa; Wu-ZhenJie; Xie-MingYi; Wang-JinYou; Li-LZ; Zhou-XS; Cui-YS; Yan-J; Yang-HP; Song-YF; Yang-YL; Wang-GL; Wang-FY; Yu-XH; Guan-S; Yan-ZG; Yang-GZ; Liang-P; Wang-YZ; Yan-JC; Shang-DF; Wu-ZJ; Xie-MY; Wang-JY
AD: General Station of Forest Pest Control, Ministry of Forestry Shenyang, 110034, China.
SO: Journal-of-Northeast-Forestry-University. 1998, 26: 2, 33-36; 4 ref.
AB: In field experiments conducted in China, the AB strain of Beauveria brongniartii gave 66.9-85% control of Holotrichia diomphalia larvae infesting tree nurseries. The infection rate was 55.6-68.4% and the pest population density was reduced by 69.1-93.3%. The effects of B. brongniartii on Blitopertha pallidipennis were low and the level of control achieved was 56.2%. Control increased to 98.7% and the population density was reduced by 26.2% when Beauveria brongniartii + the insecticide 3911 [of unstated composition] were applied to the same plot, but in different parts of the tree canopy. Control was 89% when B. brongniartii and Steinernema feltiae (strain Beijing 87) were used together in the same plot but at different times; a control increase of 33.4% compared to using B. brongniartii alone. A residual effect was also observed on larvae the following year.
59. Effects of ultraviolet light on the entomopathogenic nematode, STEINERNEMA kushidai and its symbiotic bacterium, Xenorhabdus japonicus.
Fujiie-A; Yokoyama-T
Applied-Entomology-and-Zoology. 1998, 33: 2, 263-269; 19 ref.

AB: Effects of ultraviolet (UV) exposure on the survival of Steinernema kushidai infective juveniles (JIII) and its insecticidal activity against larvae of the cupreous chafer, Anomala cuprea, were examined at 250C. The UV used was from sunlight and from UV lamps. The peak wavelengths of UV A, UV B and UV C lamps were 350, 310 and 254 nm, respectively. The nematode mortality significantly increased after exposure to sunlight for 40 min at three intensities (4.3, 3.3 and 3.1 mW/cm2) of UV, and their insecticidal activity decreased. UV A (1.2 mW/cm2) was not harmful to JIII for up to 40 min exposure. Contrarily, all JIII were killed by the exposure to UV B (0.9 mW/cm2) for 5 min and to UV C (0.9 mW/cm2) for 30 s. The insecticidal activity of JIII and the number of A. cuprea cadavers producing nematode progeny after the treatments decreased at 40 min, 5 min and 10 s exposures to sunlight, UV B and UV C, respectively, but did not decrease after the exposure to UV A. Sunlight, UV B and UV C decreased the density of viable symbiotic bacterium, Xenorhabdus japonicus, associated with S. kushidai in the body of JIII.
60. Efficacy of the entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema carpocapsae (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), against the Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae).
Cheng-ChiChin; Tang-LiChang; Hou-RF; Cheng-CC; Tang-LC
Chinese-Journal-of-Entomology. 1998, 18: 1, 51-60; 30 ref.

AB: In laboratory studies, third stage infective juveniles (IJs) of the entomophilic nematode, Steinernema carpocapsae, were highly pathogenic to the Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis. The LC50 of S. carpocapsae to 3rd-, 4th-, and 5th-instar larvae of O. furnacalis was 7.5, 8.7 and 16.3 IJs ml-1, respectively. The LT50 was 1.4, 2.4, and 4.9 h for 3rd-, 4th-, and 5th-instar larvae, respectively, when exposed to 200 IJs. At the same quantity of nematodes, pupal mortality was 28.3%. However, mortality was only 6.7% when the quantity of nematodes was lowered from 200 to 10 IJs. The mortality of O. furnacalis was not significantly different between treatments with nematodes and application of Bacillus thuringiensis preparations on sweet corn [maize] fields. The efficacy of nematodes against O. furnacalis when protected in the form of a paste was similar to that of chlorpyrifos. Comparing different application times showed that applying nematodes after larval infestation resulted in fewer stem cavities and lower numbers of larvae surviving than when applied before infestation. It is suggested that the timing of nematode application may affect the overall efficacy.
61. CANADA-INFECTIVITY
TI: Effect of recycling temperature on the infectivity of entomopathogenic nematodes.
AU: Jagdale-GB; Gordon-R
SO: Canadian-Journal-of-Zoology. 1997, 75: 12, 2137-2141; 17 ref.
PY: 1997
AB: Four strains of entomopathogenic nematodes were recycled in vivo for 2 years at temperatures ranging from 10 to 25°C before the infectivity of their juveniles was compared. Infectivity was examined by measuring LC50 values for Galleria mellonella larvae at bioassay temperatures ranging from 5 to 25°C. Of the 4 strains examined, only the Umea and NF strains of Steinernema feltiae that had been recycled at 100C infected and killed the insects at a bio-assay temperature of 50C. The S. carpocapsae. S. riobravis [Steinernema riobrave] TX strains were infective at 100C only when the recycling temperature was 200°C. The infectivity of the 2 strains of S. feltiae at 10 or 150C was compromised by propagating them at higher temperatures (20-250C). The Umea strain of S. feltiae displayed an impaired capacity to infect hosts at higher temperatures (20-250C) when recycled at lower (150C) temperatures. The capacity of these nematodes to adjust to different recycling temperatures is discussed in relation to their infectivity in different field situations.
62. USA-HELICOVERPA
Inundative biological control of Helicoverpa zea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) with the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema riobravis (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae).
Feaster-MA; Steinkraus-DC
Biological-Control. 1996, 7: 1, 38-43; 25 ref.

AB: The effect of inundative applications of S. riobravis [S. riobrave] were determined to soil in irrigated and non-irrigated plots against 6th-instar larvae and pupae of H. zea in maize fields in Arkansas. Nematode infections of H. zea were significantly higher in treated plots compared to the controls. A high rate of infection and flood irrigation produced the highest percentage of S. riobrave-induced mortality in experiments 1 and 2 (91.3 and 94.8%, respectively). H. zea mortality in irrigated and non-irrigated plots in both experiments was similar. Soil moisture is regarded as an important factor in soil nematode survival and movement. It is indicated that S. riobrave has the potential as an inundative biological control agent for H. zea. The ability of S. riobrave to persist under severe environmental conditions, and to maintain infective for extended periods of time when suitable hosts are not available, are considered positive biological control attributes.
63. POLAND-FLIES
TI: Biological control of sciarid flies (Bradysia spp.) with predatory mites Hypoaspis aculeifer on poinsettia crops in greenhouses.
AU: Piatkowski-J; Albajes-R (ed.); Carnero-A
SO: Integrated control in protected crops, Mediterranean climate. Proceedings of the meeting at Tenerife, Canary Islands, 3-6 November 1997. Bulletin-OILB-SROP. 1997, 20: 4, 221-224; 6 ref.
PY: 1997
AB: In greenhouse trials on poinsettias in Poland in 1995-96, control of Bradysia spp. with Hypoaspis aculeifer was compared to control using Steinernema feltiae alone, S. feltiae with the predator or with teflubenzuron (Nomolt 15 SC) or cyromazine (Trigard). Numbers of sciarids were monitored using yellow sticky traps. Three introductions of the predator were more effective than chemical control. Introduction of the nematode to a system with H. aculeifer resulted in a temporary increase in the pest population, possibly as the predator fed on the newly introduced nematodes.
64. MALAYSIA-PEST CONTROL
TI: Potential of Steinernema carpocapsae for biological control of two major insect pests in Malaysia.
AU: Razak-AR; Kondo-E; Ishibashi-N; Grey-G
SO: Biological pest control in systems of integrated pest management. Proceedings of the International Symposium on "The use of Biological Control Agents under Integrated Pest Management".. 1996, 86-92; 12 ref.
PY: 1996
AB: The potential of the S. carpocapsae strain All, a biological control agent against 2 serious pests of Malaysian crops from 2 different habitats, namely Rhytidodera simulans, the mango shoot borer (cryptic habitat) and Plutella xylostella, diamondback moth (foliar habitat), was evaluated. Larvae of R. simulans of varying body weights, (ranging from 0.5 to 2.2 g) from infected mango branches were exposed to 5, 10, 20, 40, 50, 100, 200, 400 and 800 infective juveniles (J3) in 6 cm diameter Petri dishes lined with filter paper. Fifty percent of the insects were killed within 48 hours of exposure to J3 at all inoculum levels, and more than 40% of the remaining insects were killed during the following 24 hours. The J3 was able to develop and reproduce in the insect cadaver. At lower inoculum levels the motility of the insect was reduced. The LC50 of S. carpocapsae for the mango borer appeared to be between 40 to 50 J3. P. xylostella seemed to be more susceptible to the S. carpocapsae strain All. Insect mortality of 100% resulted when the insects were exposed to 100, 200, 400, 800, and 1600 J3 while feeding on Brassica chinensis var. pekinensis leaf disks in 6 cm diameter Petri dishes. The J3s were able to develop and propagate in the insect cadaver. Within 72 hours of the insects being killed, the entire body was filled with nematodes at different developmental stages. The number of nematodes recovered from each dissected cadaver ranged from 12 to 99, comprising males, females and the propagative stage. It was evident that the J3 penetrated the insects through the spiracles and the anal opening in P. xylostella, and probably through a similar process in R. simulans, as indicated by the congregations of large number of J3 in the spiracle.
65. TAIWAN-PEST CONTROL
Control of turfgrass insect pests with entomopathogenic nematodes in Japan.
Hatsukade-M; Grey-G
Biological pest control in systems of integrated pest management. Proceedings of the International Symposium on "The use of Biological Control Agents under Integrated Pest Management".. 1996, 78-85; 4 ref.
AB: Infective evaluation of entomopathogenic nematodes to control important turfgrass insects has been conducted under laboratory and field tests. Steinernema carpocapsae showed a higher infectivity to larvae of Spodoptera depravata, Parapediasia teterrela and Agrotis ipsilon. As this nematode is almost non-infective to larvae of scarabaeid beetles, a mixed application of S. carpocapsae together with a low concentration of chemicals has shown a higher infectivity to the 3rd instar larvae of Anomala schonfeldti.
66. Foliar application of Steinernema carpocapsae (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) to control Liriomyza trifolii (Diptera: Agromyzidae) larvae in chrysanthemums.
AU: Broadbent-AB; Olthof-THA
Environmental-Entomology. 1995, 24: 2, 431-435; 20 ref.
AB:Foliar sprays of Steinernema carpocapsae All strain (10 000 infective juveniles/ml) on chrysanthemums ('Manatee Iceberg') effectively controlled 2nd-instar larvae of Liriomyza trifolii (>85% mortality), in laboratory tests, under conditions of high humidity in plastic cages. Increasing the duration of caging chrysanthemums gave consistently higher mortality of the pest. Free moisture on the leaf surface and increased humidity enhanced the survival and activity of entomopathogenic nematodes. Glycerine was the most effective adjuvant tested for increasing the mortality of L. trifolii caused by nematodes. Wilt Pruf, Folicote and Sunspray Ultrafine Spray oil were ineffective adjuvants. A research greenhouse test using 2 consecutive applications of S. carpocapsae (3 and 4 days after oviposition by L. trifolii) gave >80% mortality of the pest with or without glycerine. Abamectin gave significantly greater mortality (99.6%) than any nematode treatment.
67. Impact of STEINERNEMA riobravis (Rhabditida:steinernematidae) on the control of Helicoverpa zea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in corn.
Cabanillas-HE; Raulston-JR
Journal-of-Economic-Entomology. 1995, 88: 1, 58-64; 20 ref.
AB: The efficacy of using an endemic entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema riobravis, to suppress prepupal and pupal populations of Helicoverpa zea in the soil was evaluated in Texas. The optimum timing of nematode soil application in relation to larval exit from the maize ear, the effects of nematode concn, introduction method, and persistence in control of the pest were determined. Better parasitism resulted when S. riobravis infective juveniles were applied on the subsurface + surface (81%) than when they were applied on the soil surface alone (45%), in the greenhouse. Striking results were obtained with 2 billion nematodes/ha applied when 10% of the larvae had exited the ear to pupate or when 50% had developed to large larvae. This resulted in 95 and 100% parasitism, resp. A low rate of parasitism (22%) was observed in plots that received nematodes when 40% of the larvae had developed to medium size larvae. Parasitism in all plots that received nematodes was higher than the 11% natural parasitism observed in control plots. S. riobravis persisted (22%) in this sandy clay loam soil during the 75-day period field evaluations. These findings show the potential of using S. riobravis for soil application in source areas where the maize acts as a nursery crop to suppress the build-up of adult populations of H. zea.